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1、一、 單項選擇題(在每小題的備選答案中選出一個正確的答案,并將正確答案的號碼填在題干的括號內(nèi)。每小題1分,共15分)1在國際貿(mào)易中,買賣商品是按重量計價的,若合同未明確規(guī)定計算重量的辦法時,按慣例,應按( )。a凈重計 b毛重計c皮重計 d重量計2按照現(xiàn)行的國際貿(mào)易慣例解釋,若以cfr條件成交,買賣雙方風險劃分是以( )。a貨物交給承運人保管為界b貨物交給第一承運人保管為界c貨物在目的港越過船舷為界d貨物在裝運港越過船舷為界3incoterms 2000c組貿(mào)易術(shù)語與其它組貿(mào)易術(shù)語的重要區(qū)別之一是( )。a交貨地點不同b風險劃分地點不同c風險劃分地點與費用劃分地點不同d費用劃分地點不同4按照國
2、際貿(mào)易有關慣例,賣方必須在運輸單據(jù)上表明( )。a包裝標志 b警告性標志c指示性標志 d運輸標志5按fob條件達成的合同,凡需租船運輸大宗貨物,應在合同中具體訂明( )。a裝船費用由誰負擔 b卸船費用由誰負擔c保險費用由誰負擔 d運費由誰負擔6在國際貿(mào)易中,海運提單的簽發(fā)日期是表示( )。a貨物開始裝船的日期b裝載船只到達裝運港口的日期c貨物已經(jīng)裝船完畢的日期d裝載船只到達目的港口的日期7海運貨物中的班輪運輸,其班輪運費應該( )。a包括裝卸費,但不計滯期、速退費b包括裝卸費,同時計滯期、速遣費c包括卸貨費,應計滯期費,不計速遣費d包括裝貨費,應計速遣費,不計滯期費8必須經(jīng)過背書才能進行轉(zhuǎn)讓的
3、提單是( )。a記名提單 b不記名提單c指示提單 d備運提單9在海洋運輸貨物保險業(yè)務中,共同海損( )。a是部分損失的一種b是全部損失的一種c有時是全部損失,有時是部分損失d既是部分損失,又是全部損失10在國際貿(mào)易運輸保險業(yè)務中,倉至倉條款是( )。a承運人負責運輸責任起訖的條件b保險人負責保險責任起訖的條款c出口人負責交貨責任起訖的條款d進口人負責接貨責任起訖的條款11按中國人民保險公司海洋貨物運輸保險條款規(guī)定,三種基本險別就保險公司承擔的風險責任范圍的大小而言,下列四種排列順序正確的是( )。a最大的是平安險,其次為一切險,再其次為水漬險b最大的是水漬險,其次為一切險,再其次為平安險c最大
4、的是一切險,其次為水漬險,再其次為平安險d最大的是一切險,其次為平安險,再其次為水漬險12在進出口貿(mào)易中,代理人或經(jīng)紀人為委托人服務而收取的報酬叫做( )。a酬金b回扣c折扣d傭金13信用證的基礎是國際貨物銷售合同,而且又是開證行對出口人的有條件的付款承諾,所以,當信用證條款與銷售合同規(guī)定不一致時,受益人可以要求( )。a開證行修改b開證人修改c通知行修改d議付行修改14匯票有即期和遠期之分,在承兌交單(da)業(yè)務中,( )。a只使用遠期匯票,不使用即期匯票b只使用即期匯票,不使用遠期匯票c既使用即期匯票,也使用遠期匯票d即期匯票和遠期匯票同時使用15賣方發(fā)盤限15日復到有效,14日下午收到買
5、方復電要求減價3并修改交貨期,正研究如何答復時,次日上午又收到買方來電接受發(fā)盤,( )。a于是,合同按賣方發(fā)盤條件達成b于是,合同按買方提出條件達成c于是,合同按買方還實盤條件達成d此時,合同尚未達成二、多項選擇題(在每小題的備選答案中選出二個或二個以上正確的答案,并將正確答案的號碼填在題干的括號內(nèi)。正確答案未選全或有選錯的,該小題無分。每小題2分,共10分)16為防止運輸途中貨物被竊,應該( )。a投保一切險,加保偷竊險b投保水漬險(即單獨海損賠償)c投保一切險d投保偷竊險e投保一切險或投保平安險和水漬險種的一種,加保偷竊險17仲裁協(xié)議是仲裁機構(gòu)受理爭議案件的必要依據(jù),按照有關規(guī)定,仲裁協(xié)議
6、( )。a必須在爭議發(fā)生之前達成b只能在爭議發(fā)生之后達成c可以在爭議發(fā)生之前達成d必須在爭議發(fā)生之后達成e可以在爭議發(fā)生之后達成18國際貿(mào)易貨物海洋運輸當中的過期提單是指( )。a提單簽發(fā)日遲于貨物裝船完畢日b提單晚于貨物到達目的港c提單簽發(fā)日早于貨物裝船完畢日d賣方向銀行交單時間超過提單線發(fā)日期21天e賣方向買方交單時間超過提單簽發(fā)日期21天19不可抗力的事件范圍較廣,引起的情況一般為( )。a賣方原因b買方原因c自然力量d社會力量e外部力量20在履行出口合同過程中,若以cif或cfr成交,采用信用證作為支付方式,賣方應做好的工作環(huán)節(jié)有( )。a備貨、報驗b申請進口許可證c制單結(jié)匯d租船訂艙
7、、辦理貨運手續(xù)e催證、審證、改證三、名詞解釋題(每小題3分,共15分)21樣品22班輪23匯票24提單25詢盤四、簡答題(每小題5分,共25分)26信用證的性質(zhì)和特點是什么?27在什么情況下才構(gòu)成實際全損?28“交貨”和“裝運”在不同的價格術(shù)語條件下,為什么有時是同一個概念,有時又互異?29仲裁協(xié)議有幾種形式?仲裁協(xié)議有何作用?30什么是發(fā)盤?構(gòu)成一項發(fā)盤應具備哪些條件?五、計算題(第31小題7分,第32小題8分,共15分)31某出口公司按每公噸1,200美元fob上海對外報價,國外客戶要求改報ciff日金山。假設每公噸運費為130美元,加1成投保,保險費為1,問該出口公司應報價多少?(要求寫
8、出計算公式及計算過程)32某外貿(mào)公司出口某商品20噸(1000千克噸),收購價每千克人民幣280元,國內(nèi)費用加17。外銷價每噸550美元cif舊金山,含傭3,共支付運費870美元,保險費440美元。試計算該商品換匯成本。(要求寫出計算公式及計算過程)六、案例分析題(每小題10分,共20分)331998年11日18日,我方某公司與國外客商簽訂一批大米出口合同,價格條件為usd115每公噸cip、漢堡,裝運期為1999年3月15日前即期信用證支付方式。按合同規(guī)定,買方于2月6日將信用證開抵賣方。出口公司于3月8日將該批貨物裝上開往漢堡的班輪。不料,該批貨物在運輸途中因海難于3月12日滅失。我方某公
9、司于3月16日持整套運輸單據(jù)向銀行議付,但買方在得知貨物已滅失后已于3月15日通知銀行拒付貨款。試分析在此情況下,賣方應如何處理?34某公司以cif鹿特丹出口食品1000箱,即期信用證付款,貨物裝運后,憑已裝船清潔提單和已投保一切險及戰(zhàn)爭險的保險單向銀行收妥貨款,貨到目的港后經(jīng)進口人復驗發(fā)現(xiàn)下列情況:(1)該批貨物共10個批號,抽查20箱,發(fā)現(xiàn)其中2個批號內(nèi)含沙門氏細菌超過進口國的標準;(2)收貨人只實收998箱,短少2箱;(3)有15箱貨物外表情況良好,但箱內(nèi)貨物共短少60公斤。試分析上述情況,進口人應分別向誰索賠,并說明理由。參考答案1、a 2、d 3、c 4、d 5、a 6、c 7、a
10、8、c 9、a 10、b 11、c 12、d 13、b 14、a 15、d 16、ce 17、ce 18、bd 19、cd 20、acde21、樣品:樣品是指從一批商品中抽取出來的或由生產(chǎn)、使用部門設計、加工出來的,足以反映和代表整批商品品質(zhì)的少量實物。22、班輪:是指在預定的航線上,按照船公司制定的船期表在固定港口之間來往行駛的船只。23、匯票:是指一個人向另一個人簽發(fā)的要求見票時或在將來的固定時間,或可以確定的時間,對某人或指定的人或持票人支付一定金額的無條件的支付命令書。24、提單:是承運人或其代理人在收到貨物后簽發(fā)給托運人的一種證件,它體現(xiàn)承運人于托運人之間的相互關系。25、詢盤:是準
11、備購買或出售商品的人向潛在的供貨人或買主探詢該商品的成交提交或交易的可能性的業(yè)務行為,它不具有法律上的約束力。26、信用證的性質(zhì)為銀行信用。其特點為:(1)信用證是一種有條件的保證付款的憑證,但不同于一般的銀行擔保。(2)信用證是依據(jù)買賣合同開立的,但它又是獨立于合同之外的自足的文件。(3)信用證只憑指定的單據(jù)付款,它是一種單據(jù)買賣。27、構(gòu)成實際全損的情況主要有:(1)保險標的物完全滅失。如:船只遭海難后沉沒,貨物與之同時沉入海底。(2)保險標的喪失。貨物遭受損失,使被保險人完全喪失了這些財產(chǎn),無法復得。(3)保險標的物發(fā)生質(zhì)變,失去原有使用價值。(4)船舶失蹤達到一定時期。28、裝運一般是
12、指將貨物裝上運輸工具。交貨一般是指賣方按照商定的時間、地點和運輸方式將合同規(guī)定的貨物交付給買方,兩者具有不同的概念。但在國際貿(mào)易中,交貨具有兩種情況:第一種情況是賣方把貨物實際交給買方,稱為實際交貨。第二種情況是賣方憑單據(jù)交貨,稱為象征性交貨。因而采用fob、cfr和cif三種價格術(shù)語時,賣方只要根據(jù)合同規(guī)定將貨物裝上船,取得提單就算交貨,它屬于象征性交貨性質(zhì)。這時,裝運即作為交貨。而在目的地或其它地點交貨,或采用內(nèi)陸交貨和目的地交貨的價格術(shù)語時,屬于實際交貨性質(zhì),裝運就不等于交貨,裝運時間與交貨時間是不一致的。29、仲裁協(xié)議是雙方當事人表示愿意將他們之間的爭議交付仲裁解決的一種書面協(xié)議。有兩
13、種形式:一種是在爭議發(fā)生之前訂立在合同中的仲裁條款;另一種是在爭議發(fā)生之后訂立的提交仲裁的協(xié)議。兩種形式的仲裁協(xié)議,其法律效力和作用是一樣的。具體表現(xiàn)在:(1)對雙方當事人有約束力。(2)排除了法院對該爭議案管轄權(quán)。(3)使仲裁機構(gòu)和仲裁員取得了對該爭議案的管轄權(quán)。30、發(fā)盤又稱發(fā)價或報價,在法律上稱要約。有賣方發(fā)盤和買方發(fā)盤之分,構(gòu)成一項發(fā)盤必須具備下列各項條件:(1)發(fā)盤應向一個或一個以上特定的人提出,即指定受盤人。(2)發(fā)盤內(nèi)容必須十分確定,即在建議正在中寫明貨物并且明示或默示地規(guī)定數(shù)量和價格或規(guī)定如何確定數(shù)量和價格。(3)發(fā)盤必須表明發(fā)盤人對其發(fā)盤一旦被受盤人接受即受約束的意思。31、
14、cif(fob+國外運費)/(1-保險加成*保險費率)134480美元32、換匯成本=出口總成本(人民幣)/出口外匯凈收入(美元)7元人民幣美元33、根據(jù)2000年通則的解釋,cif術(shù)語屬象征性交貨的貿(mào)易術(shù)語。在信用證支付方式下,賣方只要提供了符合信用證條款規(guī)定的單據(jù),就算完成了交貨義務,就可憑合格的單據(jù)向買方索取貨款的權(quán)利,屬于單據(jù)買賣。另一方面,在cif條件下,風險轉(zhuǎn)移是以裝運港將貨物裝船為界,即風險的轉(zhuǎn)移是以貨物在裝運港裝船時越過船舷為界,買方承擔貨物越過船舷之后的風險。在本案中,賣方已按合同規(guī)定將貨物于3月8日按時裝船,符合合同約定的裝運期。該批貨物在運輸途中因海難于3月12日滅失發(fā)生
15、在裝船完畢之后,也即發(fā)生在貨物風險已轉(zhuǎn)移到買方之后,只要我方某公司持整套運輸單據(jù)向銀行議付,做到“單證相符,單單相符”,買方就無權(quán)通知銀行拒付貨款。34、第(1)種情況應向賣方索賠,承運人簽發(fā)清潔提單只證明貨物外包裝狀況,因原裝貨物有內(nèi)在缺陷,承運人不負責任。第(2)種情況應向承運人索賠,因承運人簽發(fā)清潔提單,提單是貨物收據(jù),因承運人保存貨物不妥,造成貨物短少,承運人在目的港應如數(shù)交足。第(3)種情況,因貨物外表情況良好,箱內(nèi)貨物短少,若屬保險單責任范圍以內(nèi)損失,可向保險公司索賠,但如進口人能舉證原裝數(shù)量不足,也可向賣方索賠。國際貿(mào)易實務試題一、名詞解釋(20分) 1、共同海損 2、清潔提單3
16、、追索權(quán) 4、信用證 5、還盤二、簡答(20分)1、簡述fob、cfr和cif的異同點。2、簡述國際貿(mào)易術(shù)語的作用。三、案例分析及計算(60分)1.某貨輪在航運途中貨艙起火并蔓延到機艙,為了船貨的共同安全,船長下令往倉中灌水滅火,火雖然被撲滅,但由于主機受損,貨輪無法繼續(xù)航行。于是船長決定雇傭拖輪將貨輪拖到附近港口修理,檢修后再駛往目的港。事后調(diào)查,這次事故造成的損失有:800箱貨物被火燒毀;500箱貨由于灌水滅火造成損失;主機和部分甲板被燒壞;拖船費用;額外增加的燃料和船長、船員工資。 從上述各項損失的性質(zhì)看,哪些屬于單獨海損?哪些屬于共同海損?并簡要說明理由。(10分)2. 我國江蘇省南通
17、市某輕工產(chǎn)品進出口公司向外國某公司進口一批小家電產(chǎn)品,貨物分兩批裝運,支付方式為不可撤銷議付信用證,每批分別由中國銀行某分行開立一份信用證。第一批貨物裝運后,賣方在有效期內(nèi)向銀行交單議付,議付行審單后,未發(fā)現(xiàn)不符點,即向該商議付貨款,隨后中國銀行對議付行作了償付。南通公司在收到第一批貨物后,發(fā)現(xiàn)貨物品質(zhì)不符合同規(guī)定,進而要求中國銀行對第二份信用證項下的單據(jù)拒絕付款,但遭到中國銀行的拒絕。試問,中國銀行這樣做是否有理?為什么?(15分)3. 我國山東某出口公司按cif條件與韓國某進口公司簽訂了一筆初級產(chǎn)品的交易合同。在合同規(guī)定的裝運期內(nèi),賣方備妥了貨物,安排好了從裝運港到目的港的運輸事項。在裝船
18、時,賣方考慮到從裝運港到目的港距離較近,且風平浪靜,不會發(fā)生什么意外,因此,沒有辦理海運貨物保險。實際上,貨物也安全及時抵達目的港,但賣方所提交的單據(jù)中缺少了保險單,買方因市場行情發(fā)生了對自己不利的變化,就以賣方所交的單據(jù)不全為由,要求拒收貨物拒付貨款。請問,買方的要求是否合理?此案應如何處理?(15分)4.我某出口公司以cif紐約條件與美國某公司訂立了200套家具的出口合同,合同規(guī)定2002年12月交貨。11月底,我企業(yè)出口商品倉庫發(fā)生雷擊火災,致使一半左右的出口家具燒毀。我企業(yè)以發(fā)生不可抗力為由,要求免除交貨責任,美方不同意,堅持我方按時交貨。我方無奈經(jīng)多方努力,于2003年1月初交貨,美
19、方要求索賠。試問:(1)我方要求免除交貨責任的要求是否合理?為什么?(2)美方的索賠要求是否合理?為什么?(10分)5. 我國某公司以每箱50美元cif悉尼出口某商品共一萬箱,貨物出口前,由我公司向中國人民保險公司某分公司投保了水漬險、串味險及淡水雨淋險,其保險費率分別為0.7%、0.3%和0.2%,按發(fā)票金額110%投保。試計算該批貨物的投保金額和保險費各是多少?(10分) 20062007學年第一學期國際貿(mào)易實務試題(答案)一、名詞解釋(20分) 1、共同海損:載運貨物的船舶在航運途中遇到自然災害或者意外事故,危及船、貨的共同安全時,船方為了保護船與貨物的共同安全或者為了使航程得以繼續(xù)完成
20、,而有意識的合理的采取挽救措施所做出的某些特殊犧牲和支出的額外費用。2、清潔提單:指貨物在裝船時“表面狀況良好”,承運人在提單沒有標明貨物及包裝有缺陷的提單。 3、追索權(quán):是指持票人在票據(jù)到期不獲付款或期前不獲承兌或有其他法定原因,并在實施行使或保全票據(jù)上權(quán)利的行為后,可以向其前手請求償還票據(jù)金額、利息及其他法定款項的一種票據(jù)權(quán)利。4、信用證:是銀行做出的有條件的付款承諾,即銀行根據(jù)開證申請人的請求和指示,向受益人開具的有一定金額、并在一定期限內(nèi)憑規(guī)定的單據(jù)承諾付款的書面文件;或者是銀行在規(guī)定金額、日期和單據(jù)的條件下,愿代開證申請人承購受益人匯票的保證書。5、還盤: 是指受盤人不同意或不完全同
21、意發(fā)盤提出的各項條件,并提出了修改意見,建議原發(fā)盤人考慮。二、簡答(20分)1、簡述fob、cfr和cif的異同點。答案:相同點(1)賣方都是在裝運港交貨,(2)買賣雙方風險的轉(zhuǎn)移以貨物越過裝運港船舷為界限(3)都適合于水上運輸(4)賣方辦理出口通關手續(xù),買方辦理進口通關手續(xù)區(qū)別:在運輸和保險上存在差別fob下運輸和保險由買方自行安排,賣方無責任;cfr下賣方負責簽訂運輸合同,支付運輸費用,保險由買方自行安排;cif下,運輸合同和保險合同均由賣方負責簽訂,并承擔運費和保險費。2、簡述國際貿(mào)易術(shù)語的作用。答案:貿(mào)易術(shù)語在國際貿(mào)易中起著積極的作用,主要表現(xiàn)在下列幾個方面:(1)有利于買賣雙方洽商交
22、易和訂立合同(2)有利于買賣雙方核算價格和成本(3) 有利于解決履行當中的爭議三、案例分析及計算(60分)、答案:本案例、是因火災而造成的直接損失,不具備共同海損成立的條件,屬單獨海損。、是因維護船貨共同安全,進行灌水滅火而造成的損失和產(chǎn)生的費用,屬于共同海損。2、答案:信用證是一種銀行開立的有條件的承諾付款的書面文件。對出口商來說,只要按信用證規(guī)定條件提交了單據(jù),在單單一致、單證一致的情況下,即可從銀行得到付款;對進口商來說,只要在申請開證時,保證收到符合信用證規(guī)定的單據(jù)即行付款并交付押金,即可從銀行取得代表貨物所有權(quán)的單據(jù)。因此,銀行開立信用證實際是進行單據(jù)的買賣。此外,開證行與受益人之間
23、的關系屬于一種對雙方都有約束力的合同關系。這種合同關系約束開證行應在對單據(jù)做出合理審查之后,按照信用證的規(guī)定,承擔向受益人付款的義務,而不受買賣雙方買賣合同或者開證行和買方依開證申請書成立的合同以及其它合同的影響。因此,在本案中,中國銀行這樣做是合理的。 3、答案:從交貨方式上來看,cif 是一種典型的象征性交貨(symbolic delivery)。象征性交貨是針對實際交貨而言。在象征性交貨方式下,賣方是憑單交貨,買方是憑單付款。只要賣方如期向買方提交了合同規(guī)定的全套合格單據(jù),即使貨物在運輸途中損壞或滅失,買方也必須履行付款義務。反之,如果賣方提交的單據(jù)不符合要求,即使貨物完好無損地運達目的
24、港,買方仍有權(quán)拒收單據(jù)并拒付貨款。還需指出,按cif術(shù)語成交,賣方履行其交單義務只是得到買方付款的前提條件,除此之外,他還必須履行交貨義務。因此,本案中,買方提出的要求是合理的,賣方必須提交符合規(guī)定的全套單據(jù),買方可以拒收貨物拒付貨款,或向賣方提出索賠。 4、(1)我方要求免除交貨責任的要求不合理。理由:雖然我企業(yè)出口商品倉庫遇不可抗力導致一半左右出口家具燒毀,但這種不可抗力并沒有使我方到達不能履行合同的程度,所以我方不能要求免除全部交貨責任,但可以延期履行交貨。(2)美方的索賠要求不合理理由:我方遇不可抗力事件后,雖經(jīng)多方努力仍造成逾期交貨,對此,我方不負責任,可以免責。5、保險金額計算的公
25、式是:保險金額=cif貨值(1+加成率)。保險費則根據(jù)保險費率表按保險金計算,其計算公式是:保險費=保險金額保險費率。在本案中,保險總金額=cif貨值(1+加成率)10000箱=50(1+10%)=550000美元;總保險費=保險金額保險費率=550000(0.7%+0.3%+0.2%)=6600美元。請您刪除一下內(nèi)容,o(_)o謝謝!2016年中央電大期末復習考試小抄大全,電大期末考試必備小抄,電大考試必過小抄acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peri
26、pheral and the central nervous systems. it is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. the enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, c
27、arried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. when a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released
28、 into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the effector cell which the nerve activates. this may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. thus electrical signals are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and
29、non-nerve cells. this process is termed chemical neurotransmission and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the german pharmacologist loewi in 1921. chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is known as cholinergic. acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the
30、fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. at this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the so-called motor end plate. on release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (star
31、ting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. this is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a command is required. the action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds; an enzyme (cholinester
32、ase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. the choline is then available for re-uptake into the nerve terminal. these same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. in the autonomic
33、 nervous system these include nerve-to-nerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on non-voluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells; in response to activation of this nerve s
34、upply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nerve-to-nerve synapses. to understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells i
35、t is necessary to understand membrane receptors. in post-synaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylcholine. these are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a rever
36、sible fashion. it is the complex of receptor combined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. two major types of acetylcholine receptors exist in the membranes of cells. the type in skeletal muscle is known as nicotinic; in gla
37、nds, smooth muscle, and the heart they are muscarinic; and there are some of each type in the brain. these terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors, whereas muscarine, an alkaloid from the mushroom amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine
38、at the muscarinic receptors. acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. in the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. in the central nervous
39、 system acetylcholine is believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood. acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme a through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and becomes packaged into membrane-boundvesicles. after the arrival of a nerve signal at the term
40、ination of an axon, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, causing the release of acetylcholine into thesynaptic cleft. for the nerve signal to continue, acetylcholine must diffuse to another nearby neuron or muscle cell, where it will bind and activate areceptorprotein. there are two main types
41、of cholinergic receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic. nicotinic receptors are located at synapses between two neurons and at synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. upon activation a nicotinic receptor acts as a channel for the movement of ions into and out of the neuron, directly resultin
42、g indepolarizationof the neuron. muscarinic receptors, located at the synapses of nerves with smooth or cardiac muscle, trigger a chain of chemical events referred to as signal transduction. for a cholinergic neuron to receive another impulse, acetylcholine must be released from the receptor to whic
43、h it has bound. this will only happen if the concentration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is very low. low synaptic concentrations of acetylcholine can be maintained via a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. this enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetic acid
44、and choline. if acetylcholinesterase activity is inhibited, the synaptic concentration of acetylcholine will remain higher than normal. if this inhibition is irreversible, as in the case of exposure to many nerve gases and some pesticides, sweating, bronchial constriction, convulsions, paralysis, an
45、d possibly death can occur. although irreversible inhibition is dangerous, beneficial effects may be derived from transient (reversible) inhibition. drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase in a reversible manner have been shown to improve memory in some people with alzheimers disease. abstract expre
46、ssionism, movement of abstract painting that emerged in new york city during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in american art in the following decade; also called action painting and the new york school. it was the first important school in american painting to declare its independence
47、 from european styles and to influence the development of art abroad. arshile gorky first gave impetus to the movement. his paintings, derived at first from the art of picasso, mir, and surrealism, became more personally expressive. jackson pollocks turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which we
48、re created by spattering paint on huge canvases placed on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. willem de koonings first one-man show in 1948 established him as a highly influential artist. his intensely complicated abstract paintings of the 1940s were followed by images
49、 of woman, grotesque versions of buxom womanhood, which were virtually unparalleled in the sustained savagery of their execution. painters such as philip guston and franz kline turned to the abstract late in the 1940s and soon developed strikingly original stylesthe former, lyrical and evocative, th
50、e latter, forceful and boldly dramatic. other important artists involved with the movement included hans hofmann, robert motherwell, and mark rothko; among other major abstract expressionists were such painters as clyfford still, theodoros stamos, adolph gottlieb, helen frankenthaler, lee krasner, a
51、nd esteban vicente. abstract expressionism presented a broad range of stylistic diversity within its largely, though not exclusively, nonrepresentational framework. for example, the expressive violence and activity in paintings by de kooning or pollock marked the opposite end of the pole from the si
52、mple, quiescent images of mark rothko. basic to most abstract expressionist painting were the attention paid to surface qualities, i.e., qualities of brushstroke and texture; the use of huge canvases; the adoption of an approach to space in which all parts of the canvas played an equally vital role
53、in the total work; the harnessing of accidents that occurred during the process of painting; the glorification of the act of painting itself as a means of visual communication; and the attempt to transfer pure emotion directly onto the canvas. the movement had an inestimable influence on the many va
54、rieties of work that followed it, especially in the way its proponents used color and materials. its essential energy transmitted an enduring excitement to the american art scene. science and technology is quite a broad category, and it covers everything from studying the stars and the planets to st
55、udying molecules and viruses. beginning with the greeks and hipparchus, continuing through ptolemy, copernicus and galileo, and today with our work on the international space station, man continues to learn more and more about the heavens. from here, we look inward to biochemistry and biology. to tr
56、uly understand biochemistry, scientists study and see the unseen bystudying the chemistry of biological processes. this science, along with biophysics, aims to bring a better understanding of how bodies work from how we turn food into energy to how nerve impulses transmit.analytic geometry, branch o
57、fgeometryin which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such ascartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. its most common application is in the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. for example, the linear equationax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in thexy-plane, and the linear equationax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane in space, wherea, b, c,anddare constant numbers (coefficients). in t
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