小說及小說要素

1、NarratologyNarratologyw傳統(tǒng)的敘事理論傳統(tǒng)的敘事理論的普遍特點(diǎn)是側(cè)重于談?wù)摂⑹挛膶W(xué)所表現(xiàn)的生活內(nèi)容，從而形成了后來人們總結(jié)的以人物、情節(jié)、環(huán)境三要素為中心的敘事理論。w新的敘事理論新的敘事理論把故事敘述的方式、敘述者的聲音特點(diǎn)、敘述者與敘述的接受者之間的關(guān)系等等以前的敘事理論較少注意的方面，作為新的研究重點(diǎn)，這些研究理論被成為當(dāng)代“敘事敘事學(xué)”。 敘事的構(gòu)成 w敘述內(nèi)容 w敘述話語 w敘述動作 敘述內(nèi)容w（一） 故事。敘述內(nèi)容的基本成份就是故事。這可以通過對事件、情節(jié)、人物、場景諸方面的分析而對敘述內(nèi)容的一般特征有所了解。w（二） 結(jié)構(gòu)。敘事作品的結(jié)構(gòu)是指作品中各個成份或

2、單元之間關(guān)系的整體形態(tài)。它可以分為表層結(jié)構(gòu)和深層結(jié)構(gòu)。w（三） 行動。行動是事件發(fā)生的直接原因，因而是敘述內(nèi)容實現(xiàn)的根本途徑。行動邏輯是指支配故事中行動的內(nèi)在規(guī)律。 敘述話語w（一） 本文時間與故事時間。閱讀作品本文所需要的實際時間，即本文時間；故事中虛構(gòu)的時間關(guān)系，即故事時間。這兩種時間有時可以重合，但就整體而言，不僅性質(zhì)不同，長短與順序也不同。w（二） 視角。視角也稱為聚焦，即作品中對故事內(nèi)容進(jìn)行觀察和講述的角度。傳統(tǒng)的敘事作品中主要是采用旁觀者的口吻，即第三人稱敘述。較晚近的敘事作品中第一人稱敘述的多了起來。第二人稱敘述是較為罕見的特殊現(xiàn)象。還有一類較重要的特殊情況是變換人稱和視角的敘述

3、。 敘述動作w（一） 敘述者與作者。如果把敘述者與作者混為一談，就難以把作品中所表現(xiàn)出的作者的理想、想象力與作者的實際道德、人生態(tài)度區(qū)分開來，勢必會混淆故事敘述與日常話語敘述的區(qū)別。w（二） 敘述者與聲音。用什么口氣或什么態(tài)度敘述，這就是敘述者的“聲音”。發(fā)自一個聲音的敘述方式可以稱之為“獨(dú)白獨(dú)白”式的敘述方式。在同一個敘事中并行著兩個甚至更多的聲音的敘述方式稱之為“復(fù)調(diào)復(fù)調(diào)”式敘述。w（三） 敘述者與接受者。敘述是個雙向的活動：一方面在講述，另一方面在接收故事的信息時產(chǎn)生反應(yīng)。 女性主義敘事學(xué) w蘇珊蘭瑟 (美)w女性作家的聲音作者型敘述聲音(authorial voice)個人敘述聲音(p

4、ersonal voice) 集體型敘述聲音(communal voice) authorial voicew指一種“異故事的”、集體的并具有潛在自我指稱意義的敘事狀態(tài)。敘述者可以采取全知全能的視角點(diǎn)評敘述過程，并對其他的作家和文本作深層評介和闡述。這種敘述聲音是具有明顯優(yōu)勢的話語權(quán)威，通過寫作本身、自由間接話語、自我節(jié)制等方式，不無強(qiáng)勢地申明自己的話語在場。女性作家們在整體服從于男性話語系統(tǒng)的前提下，通過她們頗具革新精神的創(chuàng)作實踐，尋找女性話語形成的突破口。通過商討和妥協(xié)，她們所獲得的敘述權(quán)威既表現(xiàn)出對某種作者權(quán)威的套用，又表現(xiàn)出對這種作者權(quán)威的抵制。personal voicew指有意講述

5、自己的故事的敘述者，但它并不指代所有的“第一人稱”的敘述。由于個人型敘述聲音的權(quán)威較受限制，盡管女性的個人化敘述聲音在講述女性個體經(jīng)驗方面具有天然的優(yōu)越性，女性作家仍然會謹(jǐn)慎小心的采用個人型敘述聲音，因為她們擔(dān)心自己的作品會被誤認(rèn)為是純粹的自傳作品，毫無藝術(shù)價值。 communal voicew指在敘述過程中某個具有一定規(guī)模的群體被賦予敘事權(quán)威，這種敘事權(quán)威即通過多方位、多角度的敘述聲音，也通過某個經(jīng)由群體授權(quán)的個人的聲音在文本中得以表達(dá)。這個相對新穎的敘述范疇，大致可分為三種類型:某敘述者代表某群體發(fā)言的“單言”(singular)形式，包羅萬象的“我們”進(jìn)行敘述的“共言”(simultan

6、eous)形式，以及群體中的個人輪流發(fā)言的“輪言”(sequeniial)形式。相對來說，集體型敘述聲音更適合傳遞邊緣群體或受壓迫的群體的聲音。Fiction and the Basic Elements in FictionFictionwliterature created from the imagination, not presented as fact, though it may be based on a true story or situation. Merriam-Websters Encyclopedia of Literature Types of fictionw

7、In terms of length:w novels w novellas/ novelettew short stories NovelwA novel is usually a fictional prose narrative of considerable length and complexity that deals imaginatively with human experience through a connected sequence of events involving a number of persons in a specific setting. short

8、 story wA short story is usually a brief fictional narrative in prose concentrated on a single effect, for example, the creation of mood rather than the telling of a story, which is conveyed in a single significant episode or scene and involving a limited number of characters, sometimes even only on

9、e, with words of 3,000 to 20,000 in general. novella or novelette wusually a work of fiction intermediate in length and complexity between a short story and a novel.Basic elements in fictionfictionthemecharacterplotsettingPoint of viewtonesymbolsallegorystylePlotwA plan or groundwork for a story, ba

10、sed on conflicting human motivations, with the actions resulting from believable and realistic human response. In a well-plotted story, nothing is irrelevant; everything is related. Story and PlotwE.M. Foster Aspects of the Novelw“The King died, and then the queen died.”w“The king died, and then the

11、 queen died of grief.”Types of ConflictwExternal Conflict wInternal Conflict Man and natureMan and societyMan and manHeart of DarknessHills Like White ElephantsConflict in PlotwBetween two people wBetween larger groups of people wbetween an individual and larger forces, such as natural objects, idea

12、s, modes of behavior, public opinion, and the likew within an individuals mind Five Stages of Plot1. exposition2. complication3. crisisclimax4. falling action5. resolution(denouement)Chronological plotting The temporal sequence is often deliberately broken and the chronological parts rearranged for

13、the sake of emphasis and effectflashbackwA summary or fully dramatized episode framed by the author in such a way as to make it clear that the time being discussed or dramatized took place at some earlier period of time.wIt introduces us to information that would otherwise be unavailable and thus in

14、crease our knowledge and understanding of present events.Analyzing PlotwWhat is the conflict (or conflicts) on which the plot turns? Is it external, internal, or some combination of the two?wWhat are the chief episodes or incidents that make up the plot? Is its development strictly chronological, or

15、 is the chronology rearranged in some way?Analyzing PlotwCompare the plots beginning and end. What essential changes have taken place? w Describe the plot in terms of its exposition, complication, crisis, falling action, and resolution.w Is the plot unified? Do the individual episodes logically rela

16、te to one another? Analyzing PlotwIs the ending appropriate to and consistent with the rest of the plot?wIs the plot plausible? What role, if any, do chance and coincidence play?CharactersTypes of CharacterswProtagonist & AntagonistwFlat & Round CharacterswDynamic & Static CharactersFlat & Round Cha

17、racterswFlat characters / type characters / one dimensional characters / caricatureswUsually play a minor role in the storiesMethods of CharacterizationTelling and ShowingDirect Characterization: Telling Characterization through the use of names Characterization through appearance Characterization b

18、y the author Indirect Characterization: Showing A. Characterization through dialogue B. Characterization through action Analyzing Characterw 1. Who is the protagonist of a literary piece and who (or what) is the antagonist?w 2. What is the function of minor characters?w 3. Identify the characters in

19、 terms of whether they are flat or round, dynamic or static.w4. What methods does the author employ to establish and reveal the characters? Are the methods primarily of showing or telling?w5. Are the actions of the characters properly motivated and consistent?POINT OF VIEW wa storyteller: a narrativ

20、e voice, real or implied, that presents the story to the readerw narrative voice : the method of narration that determines the (position, or angle of vision, from which the story is told )Point of viewwIt governs the readers access to the story and determines just how much he can know at any given m

21、oment about what is taking place Various Points of ViewwFirst personwSecond personwThird personFirst person w First, “I” creates an immediate sense of reality .wSecond, the writer has a ready-made principle of selection. A story told in the first person is necessarily limited to what the narrator ha

22、s seen, heard, or surmised.First personwa. Major participantwi. telling his or her own story as a major moverwii. telling a story about others and also about herself or himself as one of the major inter-actors wiii. telling a story mainly about others; this narrator is on the spot and completely inv

23、olved but is not a major moverwb. Minor participant, telling a story about events experienced and / or witnessedwc. Uninvolved character, telling a story not witnessed but reported to the narrator by other means w一個晴朗的秋天，我看見一只烏鴉正在飛過，嘴里叼著一大塊奶酪。我是一只很聰明的狐貍，所以決定把那塊奶酪弄到手。當(dāng)烏鴉落在附近的一棵樹上時，我就在那棵樹的下面坐下，然后臉瞧著樹上

24、喊道：“烏鴉小姐，早安！你今天顯得多漂亮?。芍幻髁恋难劬﹂W閃發(fā)光，羽毛烏亮，如同黑漆一般?！蔽蚁耄斑@下行了吧？”。然而，烏鴉拍拍翅膀，挺起胸脯?！芭?，”我心里暗暗地高興。我猜她還要我再恭維她幾句。于是我繼續(xù)說道：“你這么漂亮，你的嗓音一定也很優(yōu)美動聽，你這個美人，能給我唱支歌嗎？”w愚蠢的烏鴉把頭抬得高高的，閉上眼睛，張開嘴巴開始唱歌了。當(dāng)然她一開口唱歌，那塊奶酪便從嘴里掉出來落到地上，正好落到我跟前?！爸x謝你，烏鴉小姐，為表達(dá)對你的這塊奶酪的謝意，我要給你一個忠告，這就是千萬不要相信吹捧你的人?！眞我很得意，將那塊奶酪吃得干干凈凈，高高興興地拔腿就走。w一個晴朗的秋天，我嘴里叼著一大塊奶

25、酪在天空中飛過的時候，看見了一只狐貍。當(dāng)我落在附近的一棵樹上的時候，狐貍便在這棵樹的下面坐下，然后臉瞧著樹上喊道：“烏鴉小姐，早安！你今天顯得多漂亮啊！兩只明亮的眼睛閃閃發(fā)光，羽毛烏亮，如同黑漆一般。”我知道人們都很贊賞狐貍的聰明，因此我聽了狐貍的這番甜言蜜語非常高興，于是我拍拍翅膀、挺挺胸。狐貍接著說：“你這么漂亮，你的嗓音一定也很優(yōu)美動聽，你這個美人，能給我唱支歌嗎？”我想審美能力這么高的動物提出這樣的要求是很合理的。我應(yīng)該答應(yīng)它的要求。于是，我把頭抬得高高的，閉上眼睛，張開嘴巴開始唱歌了。你可以想象會帶來怎樣的后果。除我之外誰都會想到奶酪會從嘴里掉出來，落到樹下的狐貍跟前。我恐懼地望著狐

26、貍把奶酪吃得干干凈凈，然后那只狐貍說些什么忠告我的話千萬不要相信吹捧你的人?！彼麑ξ页母枰粋€字都沒提，我不知道他是否喜歡我唱的歌。w一個晴朗的秋天，我看見一只烏鴉正在飛過，嘴里叼著一大塊奶酪。她被一只狐貍看到了，這時我這個對動物的本性很敏感的觀察者機(jī)智地記錄下了烏鴉和狐貍之間所發(fā)生的故事。當(dāng)烏鴉落在附近的一棵樹上的時候，那只狐貍就在樹的下面坐下，然后臉瞧著樹上喊道：“烏鴉小姐，早安！你今天顯得多漂亮啊！兩只明亮的眼睛閃閃發(fā)光，羽毛烏亮，如同黑漆一般?！蹦侵粸貘f拍拍翅膀、挺挺胸。于是，狐貍繼續(xù)說道：“你這么漂亮，你的嗓音一定也很優(yōu)美動聽，你這個美人，能給我唱支歌嗎？”w烏鴉毫不猶豫地把頭抬得高

27、高的，閉上眼睛，張開嘴巴開始唱歌了。它一開口，那塊奶酪便從嘴里掉出來落到地上，正好落到狐貍跟前，狐貍狡猾地咧著大嘴直笑。我聽見它說：“謝謝你，烏鴉小姐，為表達(dá)對你的這塊奶酪的謝意，我要給你一個忠告，這就是千萬不要相信吹捧你的人?！闭f完，我看見它將奶酪吃得干干凈凈，拔腿走了。w瞧那只丑烏鴉嘴里的那塊大奶酪，我一定要用它來飽餐一頓。烏鴉啊，快落吧，快落下來吧。嘿，她要落了，正好?！盀貘f小姐，早安！你今天顯得多漂亮啊！”她聽見了，要落下來了，一會兒，那塊奶酪就是我的了。“你這么漂亮，你的嗓音一定也很優(yōu)美動聽，你這個美人，能給我唱支歌嗎？”快呀，你這個又丑又蠢的東西，快張開你那皮包骨頭的嘴巴。好，她要

28、唱了，烏鴉，你快唱吧。好，好，奶酪掉下來了我終于把它弄到手了！也許我還是給她點(diǎn)忠告好?！盀貘f，千萬不要相信恭維你的人。”Second person wOccurs only when speaker has more authority on a characters actions than the character himself or herself; for example, parent, psychologist, lawyer. Occurs only in brief passages when necessary.Third person wa. Omniscient. O

29、mniscient speaker sees all, reports all, knows inner workings of minds of characters. wb. Limited omniscient. Action is focused on one major character.wc. Dramatic or third-person objective. Speaker reports only actions and speeches. Thoughts of characters can be expressed only as dialoguew一個晴朗的秋天，狐

30、貍看見一只烏鴉正在飛過，嘴里叼著一大塊奶酪。她正在把東西帶給她的孩子們，因為它們已經(jīng)有幾個小說沒有吃東西了。w“啊，我真喜歡吃那塊奶酪?！焙傁氲溃骸澳菈K奶酪一定好吃極了?！眞烏鴉又累又餓，于是落在附近的一棵樹上。狐貍在樹的下面坐下，然后臉瞧著樹上喊道：“烏鴉小姐，早安！你今天顯得多漂亮啊！兩只明亮的眼睛閃閃發(fā)光，羽毛烏亮，如同黑漆一般?！毕矚g別人吹捧自己的烏鴉聽了十分得意。于是，狐貍繼續(xù)說道：“你這么漂亮，你的嗓音一定也很優(yōu)美動聽，你這個美人，能給我唱支歌嗎？”w烏鴉受到如此吹捧實在太高興了，她簡直難以按捺自己了。諸位讀者要準(zhǔn)備好，吸取所有人都應(yīng)記住的教訓(xùn)！w烏鴉高興得全然忘乎所以，這時唱歌

31、會帶來什么后果是顯而易見的，但烏鴉卻忘了這一切。于是，她把頭抬得高高的，閉上眼睛，張開嘴巴開始唱歌了。她一唱歌，那塊奶酪便從嘴里掉出來落到地上，正好落到狐貍跟前，狐貍狡猾地咧著大嘴直笑，并且說：“謝謝你，烏鴉小姐，為表達(dá)對你的這塊奶酪的謝意，我要給你一個忠告，這就是千萬不要相信吹捧你的人?！眞狐貍得意極了，它將奶酪吃得干干凈凈，拔腿走了。w一個晴朗的秋天，狐貍看見一只烏鴉正在飛過，嘴里叼著一大塊奶酪。啊，我真想吃那塊奶酪。狐貍想道。當(dāng)烏鴉落在附近的一棵樹上時，狐貍走到那棵樹下面坐下，然后臉瞧著樹上喊道：“烏鴉小姐，早安！你今天顯得多漂亮?。芍幻髁恋难劬﹂W閃發(fā)光，羽毛烏亮，如同黑漆一般?！睘貘f

32、抖抖身上的羽毛，頭抬得高高的。于是，狐貍繼續(xù)說道：“你這么漂亮，你的嗓音一定也很優(yōu)美動聽，你這個美人，能給我唱支歌嗎？”w烏鴉把頭抬得高高的，閉上眼睛，張開嘴巴開始唱歌了?！鞍?，現(xiàn)在她已經(jīng)上了我的圈套?！焙偤喼眴研@喜若狂了。她一唱歌，那塊奶酪便從嘴里掉出來落到地上，正好落到狐貍跟前，狐貍狡猾地咧著大嘴直笑，并且說：“謝謝你，烏鴉小姐，為表達(dá)對你的這塊奶酪的謝意，我要給你一個忠告，這就是千萬不要相信吹捧你的人。”w狐貍得意極了，它將奶酪吃得干干凈凈，拔腿走了。w一個晴朗的秋天，狐貍看見一只烏鴉正在飛過，嘴里叼著一大塊奶酪?！鞍?，我真想吃那塊奶酪?！焙傁氲?。當(dāng)烏鴉落在附近的一棵樹上時，狐貍走

33、到那棵樹下面坐下，然后臉瞧著樹上喊道：“烏鴉小姐，早安！你今天顯得多漂亮啊！兩只明亮的眼睛閃閃發(fā)光，羽毛烏亮，如同黑漆一般?！?烏鴉抖抖身上的羽毛，頭抬得高高的。于是，狐貍繼續(xù)說道：“你這么漂亮，你的嗓音一定也很優(yōu)美動聽，你這個美人，能給我唱支歌嗎？”w于是，烏鴉把頭抬得高高的，閉上眼睛，張開嘴巴開始唱歌了。她一唱歌，那塊奶酪便從嘴里掉出來落到地上，正好落到狐貍跟前，狐貍狡猾地咧著大嘴直笑，并且說：“謝謝你，烏鴉小姐，為表達(dá)對你的這塊奶酪的謝意，我要給你一個忠告，這就是千萬不要相信吹捧你的人?！眞狐貍得意極了，它將奶酪吃得干干凈凈，拔腿走了。Analyzing Point of ViewwWh

34、at is the point of view: who talks to the reader? Is the point of consistent throughout the work or does it shift in some way?wWhere does the narrator stand in relation to the work? Where does the reader stand? w To what sources of knowledge or information does the point of view give the reader acce

35、ss? What sources of knowledge or information does it serve to conceal?w If the work is told from the point of view of one of the characters, is the narrator reliable? Does his or her personality, character, or intellect affect an ability to interpret the events or the other characters correctly?wGiv

36、en the authors purposes, is the chosen point of view an appropriate and effective one? wHow would the work be different if told from another point of view? THEME wThe central idea or statement about life that unifies and controls the total work. Theme is not the issue, or problem, or subject with wh

37、ich the work deals, but rather the comment or statement the author makes about that issue, problem, or subject.Things to keep in mindwThe theme necessarily and inevitably emerges from the interplay of the various elements of the work and is organically and necessarily related to the works total stru

38、cture and texture.Things to keep in mindwThe theme may be less prominent and less fully developed in some works of fiction than in others. w It is entirely possible that intelligent readers will differ, at times radically, on just what the theme of a given works is. wThe theme of a given work need n

39、ot be in accord with the readers particular beliefs and values. Identifying ThemewIt is important to avoid confusing a works theme with its subject or situation. wWe must be as certain as we can that our statement of theme does the work full justice. w The test of any theme we may propose is whether

40、 it is fully and completely supported by the works other elements. wThe title an author gives the work often suggests a particular focus or emphasis for the readers attention. wJoseph Conrads Heart of Darkness wJoseph Conrads Heart of Darkness refers not only to the uncharted center of Africa, the d

41、ark continent, but to the capacity for evil and corruption that exists in the human heart, a title relevant to both the plot situation and the theme of Conrads story.Analyzing ThemewDoes the work have a theme? Is it stated or implied? w What generalization(s) or statement(s) about life or human expe

42、rience does the work make? w What elements of the work contribute most heavily to the formulation of the theme? Analyzing Themew Does the theme emerge organically and naturally, or does the author seem to force the theme upon the work? wWhat is the value or significance of the work s theme? Is it to

43、pical or universal in its application? Style The words that tell the storyStylewStyle is highly individualistic.wThe better the writer, the more the writers words fit the precise situation called for in the story.wJonathan Swift defined style as the right words in the right place. We may add that st

44、yle is also the right words at the right time and in the right circumstances.w w Style dictionsyntaxThe arrangement of those words and phrases, clauses, and sentencesThe individual words an author choosesAs well as such devices as rhythm and sound, allusion, ambiguity, irony, paradox and figurative

45、languageElements of styleDiction: choice of wordsThe denotative meaning or words, as opposed to their connotative meaning Degree of concreteness or abstractnessDegree of allusivenessParts of speech they representLength and constructionThe level of usage they reflect (standard or nonstandard; formal

46、or informal or colloquial)Imagery (details of sensory experience) Rhythm and sound patterns (onomatopoeia, etc)Syntax: Construction of SentenceswIn terms of their lengthwShortwlong and involved In terms of their formwSimplewCompound or complexIn terms of their constructionwLoose: follow the normal pattern of subject-verb-object pattern stating their main idea near the beginning in the form of an independent clausewPeriodic: deliberately withhold or suspend the completion of the idea until the end of the sentencewBalanced: two similar or antithetical ideas are bal