第三章形合與意合

1、第三章形合與意合；（HypotacticvsParatactic；所謂形合，指的是句中的詞語或分句之間用語言形式手；所謂意合，指的是詞語或分句之間不用語言形式手段連；一、英語的形合法；英語造句常用各種形式手段連接詞、語、分句或從句，；1關(guān)系詞和連接詞；1）Allwasclearedupsometim；過了一些時候，從遠方傳來了消息：在小鋼球墜落的當(dāng)；2）第三章 形合與意合（ Hypotactic vsParatactic）所謂形合，指的是句中的詞語或分句之間用語言形式手段（如關(guān)聯(lián)詞）連接起來，表達語法意義和邏輯關(guān)系。The American Heritage Dictionary給形合定義為，

2、“The dependent or subordinate or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don?t come.”英語造句主要采取形合（Hypotactic）。所謂意合，指的是詞語或分句之間不用語言形式手段連接，句中的語法意義和邏輯關(guān)系通過詞語或分句的含義表達。The World Book Dictionary給意合定義為：“The arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showi

3、ng the relation between themExample： The rain fell；the river flooded; the house washed away”漢語造句主要采用意合法（Parataxis）。一、英語的形合法英語造句常用各種形式手段連接詞、語、分句或從句，注重顯性接應(yīng)（overt cohesion），注重句子形式，注重結(jié)構(gòu)完整，注重以形顯義。英語句中的連接手段和形式（cohesive ties）不僅數(shù)量大，種類多，而且用得十分頻繁：1關(guān)系詞和連接詞。關(guān)系詞包括關(guān)系代詞、關(guān)系副詞、連接代詞和連接副詞，如who，whom，whose，that，which，wh

4、at，when，where，why，how等，用來連接主句和定語從句、主語從句、賓語從句或表語從句。連接詞包括并列連詞和從屬連詞，如and，or，but， yet，so，however，as well as，（n）either?（n）or?及when，while，as，since，until，so?that，unless，lest等，用來連接詞、詞組、分句或狀語從句。英語造句幾乎離不開這些關(guān)系詞和連接詞，漢語則少用甚至不用這類詞，如：1） All was cleared up some time later when news came from a distant place that an

5、 earthquake was felt the very day the little copper ball fell過了一些時候，從遠方傳來了消息：在小鋼球墜落的當(dāng)天，確實發(fā)生了地震。這一切終于得到了澄清。2）When I try to understand what it is that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect，it seems to me that there are two causes，of which one goes much deeper than the othe

6、r為什么如此眾多的美國人不能如想象中那樣幸福呢？我認(rèn)為原因有二，而兩者之間又有深淺之分。3）It had been a fine，golden autumn，a lovely farewell to those who would lose their youth， and some of them their lives，before the leaves turned again in a peacetime fall那是個天氣晴朗、金黃可愛的秋天，美好的秋色為那些青年們送別。待到戰(zhàn)后和平時期，黃葉紛飛的秋天再度來臨時，當(dāng)日的青年已經(jīng)失去了青春，有的喪失了生命。4）It is flatte

7、ring to believe that they are too profound to be expressed so clearly that all who run may read，and very naturally it does not occur to such writers that the fault is with their own minds which have not the faculty of precise reflection（WSMaugham：Lucidity，Simplicity，Euphony）認(rèn)為自己的思想深奧，不可能表達得很清楚，讓任何人都

8、能理解，這是一種虛榮的念頭。這樣的作家當(dāng)然不會想到，問題還是出在自己腦子缺乏精確思考的能力。5）It was what sentimentalists，who deal in very big words，call a yearning after the ideal， and simply means that women are not satisfied until they have husbands and children on whom they may center affections, which are spent elsewhere, as it were, in sm

9、all change.（WThackeray：Vanity Fair）一般情感主義者喜歡用大字眼，稱之為對于理想愛情的渴望。換言之，他們認(rèn)為女人的情感平時只能零星發(fā)泄，必須有了丈夫和孩子，情感收聚起來有了歸宿，自己才能得到滿足。2介詞。介詞包括簡單介詞(如with，to，in，of，about，between，through)、合成介詞 (如inside，onto，upon，within，without，throughout)和成語介詞 (如according to，along with，apart from，because of，in front of，on behalf of，with r

10、egard to)。根據(jù)GCurme統(tǒng)計，英語各類介詞共約286個。介詞是英語里最活躍的詞類之一，是連接詞、語或從句的重要手段。RBander指出：“ A preposition may be defined as a connecting word showing the relation of a noun or substitute for a noun to some other word the sentencePrepositions appear constantly in English speech and writingOver ninety percent of prep

11、osition usage involves these nine prepositions：with，to，from，at，in，of，by，for and on”英語造句幾乎離不開介詞，漢語則常常不用或省略介詞：1)The many colors of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside 彩虹有多種顏色，外圈紅，內(nèi)圈紫。2)He had a disconcerting habit of expressing contradictory ideas in rapid succession他有一種令人難

12、堪的習(xí)慣：一會兒一個看法，自相矛盾，變化無常。3)This was an intelligently organized and fervent meeting in a packed Town Hall, with MrStrong in the chair這是一次精心組織起來的會議。市政廳里濟濟一堂，熱情洋溢，主持會議的是斯特朗先生。4)Power can be transmitted over a great distance with practically negligible loss if it is carried by an electric current電流可以把動力傳送

13、到很遠的地方，其消耗幾乎可以忽略不計。5)The present onslaught of vehicles poses a serious threat to urban life and pedestrian peace of mind當(dāng)前，車輛橫沖直闖，嚴(yán)重地威脅著城市生活，路上行人無不提心吊膽。6)Change of information，if any，concerning the contents of this section will be found in the appendix at the end of this book本節(jié)內(nèi)容如有更改，均見本書末附錄。7)She s

14、aid，with perfect truth, that “it must be delightful to have a brother，”and easily got the pity of tender-hearted Amelia，for being alone in the world，an orphan without friends or kindred(“Vanity Fair”)她說道，“有個哥哥該多好啊，”這話說得入情入理。她沒爹沒娘，又沒有親友，真是孤苦伶仃。軟心腸的阿米莉亞聽了，立刻覺得她可憐。3其他連接手段，如形態(tài)變化形式，包括詞綴變化，動詞、名詞、代詞、形容詞和副詞

15、的形態(tài)變化(如性、數(shù)、格、時、體、語態(tài)、語氣、比較級、人稱等)及其保持前后一致的關(guān)系(grammatical and notional concord)，廣泛使用代詞以保持前呼后應(yīng)的關(guān)系，以及使用“it”和“there”作替補詞(expletives)起連接作用等等。英語常常綜合運用上述的關(guān)系詞、連接詞、介詞以及其他連接手段，把各種成分連接起來，構(gòu)筑成長短句子，表達一定的語法關(guān)系和邏輯聯(lián)系。如：1)He boasts that a slave is free the moment his feet touch British soil and he sells the children of

16、the poor at six years of age to work under the lash in the factories for sixteen hours a day他吹噓說，任何奴隸一踏上英國的土地就獲得自由，而他卻出賣窮人家六歲的孩子到工廠干活，每天十六小時，受盡鞭打責(zé)罵。2)They would have had to live the rest of their lives under the stigma that they had recklessly precipitated an action which wrecked the Summit Conferen

17、ce and conceivably could have launched a nuclear war.他們恐怕免不了在有生之年要蒙受不潔之名，人們會說他們貿(mào)然采取行動，使最高級會議遭到擱淺，而且，可以設(shè)想，還可能挑起了一場核戰(zhàn)爭。3)Could any spectacle，for instance，be more grimly whimsical than that of gunners using science to shatter men?s bodies while, close a hand, surgeons use it to restore them?炮手用科學(xué)毀壞了人體，

18、而就在附近，外科醫(yī)生用科學(xué)使其恢復(fù)健康，還有什么情景比這更加荒謬絕倫?4)There is nothing more disappointing to a hostess who has gone to a lot of trouble or expense than to have her guest so interested in talking politics or business with her husband that he fails to notice the flavor of the coffee, the lightness of the cake, or the

19、attractiveness of the house, which may be her chief interest and pride(“Western Manners)最令女主人失望的是，她花了許多心神或費用來招待客人，可是這位客人只顧津津有味地與她的丈夫談?wù)?、談生意，卻沒注意到香噴噴的咖啡，松軟的糕點，或房間內(nèi)講究的陳設(shè)，而這些卻可能是她感到興趣并引以自豪的主要所在。5)Eyen in its blasted condition, with boards and sackings in most of the windows, with its thick dust and its

20、 bare room, with its cracked plaster and its damaged roofs, the hotel had been a new world, a breadth and dignity，full of adventure possibilities(“Betrayed Spring”)這家旅館，盡管被炸壞了，窗戶大多釘上了木板，并堆上了沙包，到處是厚厚的塵土，房間空空蕩蕩，墻上的石灰也裂了，屋頂也壞了，可總是一個寬闊莊嚴(yán)的新天地，值得去探索。二、漢語的意合法漢語造句少用甚至不用形式連接手段，注重隱性連貫(covert coherence)，注重邏輯事理

21、順序，注重功能、意義，注重以神統(tǒng)形。漢語的形合手段比英語少得多：沒有英語所常用的那些關(guān)系代詞、關(guān)系副詞、連接代詞和連接副詞；介詞數(shù)量少，大約只有30個，而且大多是從動詞“借”來的。王力指出，漢語“所謂歐化的介詞當(dāng)中，其實有大部分不是真的介詞，只是靠著西文的反映，就顯得它們有介詞性罷了。?漢語一些介詞，如“在”、“向”、“進”、“到”、“沿”、“過”、“從”、“為”、“給”、“用”、“拿”、“依”等，原均為動詞。介詞和連詞常?？梢允÷?，甚至不用，尤其是口語，用了反而顯得多余。高名凱指出，“漢人平常說話不喜歡用太多沒有基本意義的虛詞，只是把事情或意思排列起來，讓人去了解這兩個事情或兩個意思之間所生

22、的關(guān)系如何。?不過這并不是說漢人說話不合邏輯，因為不加虛詞，我們也知道這句話的意思?！?漢語沒有詞的形態(tài)變化，沒有“it”和“there”這類替補詞，代詞也用得較少，總之，“盡量省去一切不必要的形式裝置”，重意合而不重形合，詞語之間的關(guān)系常在不言之中，語法意義和邏輯聯(lián)系常隱含在字里行間。漢語的意合法往往采用以下手段：1語序。漢語的許多主從復(fù)句，雖然不用關(guān)聯(lián)詞，形式類似并列復(fù)句，但分句含義卻有主有次。從句若前置，一般有“因為”、“如果”、“雖然”、“即使”等含義。據(jù)統(tǒng)計，漢語中三分之二的因果句不到必要時，不用關(guān)聯(lián)詞。先“因”后“果”，幾乎不用“因為”，屬常態(tài)；先“果”后“因”，大多用“因為”，屬

23、變態(tài)。如：1. (因為)她不老實，我不能信任她。Because she is not honest，I cant t trust her我不能信任她，因為她不老實。I can?t trust her，because she is not honest2)人(若)不犯我，我(則)不犯人。We will not attack unless we are attacked3)說是說了，沒有結(jié)果。(=我雖然說了，但是沒有結(jié)果。)I?ve made proposals，but they proved futile4)打腫臉充胖子，吃虧是自己。If you get beyond your depth，yo

24、u will suffer5)人到事中迷，就怕沒人提。When a man is lost in a 1abyrinth，what he needs badly is a hint6)抓住了主要矛盾，一切問題就可以迎刃而解。Once the principal contradiction is grasped，all problems can be readily solved2反復(fù)、排比、對偶、對照等。這些句式詞句整齊、勻稱，往往不用關(guān)聯(lián)詞：1)他不來，我不去。(=如果他不來，我就不去。)f he won?t come here，I?ll not go there2)種瓜得瓜，種豆得豆。As

25、 you sow，so will you reap3)不怕慢，只怕站。It?s better to move ahead slowly than just to mark time.4)吃苦在前，享樂在后。Be the first to bear hardships and the 1ast to enjoy comforts5)聰明一世，糊涂一時。Smart as a rule，but this time a foo16)不知苦中苦，哪知甜中甜?If you have never tasted the bitterness of gall，how can you know the sweet

26、ness of honey?7)東邊閃電出日頭，西邊閃電必有雨，南邊閃電天氣熱，北邊閃電有雷雨。If it lightens in the east，it will be sunny；if it lightens in the west，it will be rainy；if it lightens in the south，it will be sultry；if it lightens in the north，it will be stormy3緊縮句。這類意合句式是由復(fù)句緊縮而成的?！八^?緊?，就是緊湊，是取消各分句之間的語音停頓，讓它們緊緊地挨在一起；所謂?縮?，就是壓縮，是略去原

27、來分句的一些詞語，讓它們簡約一些?！?這類句式簡明緊湊，分句之間的語法關(guān)系和邏輯聯(lián)系往往是隱含的：1)有飯大家吃。(=如果有飯的話，那就讓大家吃吧)Let everybody share the food if there is any2)不到黃河心不死。Until all is over, ambition never dies3)狐貍再狡猾也斗不過好獵手。However sly a fox may be，it is no march for a good hunter4)狼披羊皮還是狼。A wolf remains a wolf even though it is in sheep?s c

28、lothing5)問遍千家成行家。Learn from numerous advisers, and you will become a master6)上梁不正下梁歪。If the upper beam is not straight，the lower ones will go aslantWhen those above behave unworthily，those below will do the same4四字格。四字格是漢語里廣為運用的語言形式。呂叔湘指出，“2+2的四音節(jié)是現(xiàn)代漢語里的一種重要的節(jié)奏傾向。四音節(jié)的優(yōu)勢特別表現(xiàn)在現(xiàn)代漢語里存在著大量四音節(jié)熟語即?四字格?這一事實

29、上。” 四字格往往歷經(jīng)錘煉，言簡意賅，常常是意合法的佳作：1)不進則退He who does not advance falls backwardMove forward, or you?ll fall behind2)酒醉智昏When wine is in, wit is out3)物極必反Once a certain limit is reached, a change in the opposite direction is inevitable4)玩火自焚Whoever plays with fire will perish by fire5)欲蓋彌彰The more one trie

30、s to hide，the more one is exposed6)遠交近攻Befriend those far away while attacking those nearby王力指出，“西洋語的結(jié)構(gòu)好象連環(huán)，雖則環(huán)與環(huán)都聯(lián)絡(luò)起來，畢竟有聯(lián)絡(luò)的痕跡；中國語的結(jié)構(gòu)好象無縫天衣，只是一塊一塊的硬湊，湊起來還不讓它有痕跡。西洋語法是硬的，沒有彈性的；中國語法是軟的，富于彈性的。惟其是硬的，所以西洋語法有許多呆板的要求，如每一個clause里必須有一個主語; 惟其是軟的，所以中國語法只以達意為主，如初系的目的位可兼次系的主語，又如相關(guān)的兩件事可以硬湊在一起，不用任何的connective wor

31、d” ENida也認(rèn)為，英漢在語言學(xué)上最重要的一個區(qū)別就是形合和意合的不同。英語注重形合，注重結(jié)構(gòu)、形式，常常借助各種連接手段，因而比較嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)(preciseness)；漢語注重意合，注重功能、意義，常常不用或少用連接手段，因而比較簡潔(conciseness)。英譯漢時，往往要先分析句子的結(jié)構(gòu)、形式，才能確定句子的功能、意義；漢譯英時，往往要先分析句子的功能、意義，才能確定句子的結(jié)構(gòu)、形式。如：1)A body in motion remains in motion at a constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an e

32、xternal force沒有外力作用，運動的物體就連續(xù)作勻速直線運動。2)There is no more difference，but there is just the same kind of difference, between the mental operations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person as there is between the operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher who weights out his goods in co

33、mmon scales and the operations of a chemist who performs a difficult and complex analysis by means of his balance and finely graduated weights(THHuxley)科學(xué)家的思維活動和普通人的思維活動之間存在著差別，這種差別就跟一個面包師或者賣肉者和一個化驗師在操作方法上的差別一樣。前者用普通的秤稱東西的重量，而后者則用天平和精密砝碼進行艱難復(fù)雜的分析。其差別不過如此而已。3)The growth of class consciousness among t

34、he workers was inhibited by continued high levels of employment and rising earnings for almost 15 years, combines with the propaganda of views in the 1abor movement reflecting the influence of Keynesian theories about the ability of capitalismtosolvepermane；將近十五年來，就業(yè)率一直保持高水平，工資收入不斷；4)從其交友知其為人；Tellme

35、whomyouassociatewi；5)我過去所受的那些委屈和刺激，比起他來，也只是；Whatlittlepainandadversi；6)我們約他做攻守同盟，本想彼此提攜，有福同享，；Whenwegothimtogoinwcapitalism to solve permanently the problem of “boom and bust” through a “managed economy” of built-in stabilizers將近十五年來，就業(yè)率一直保持高水平，工資收入不斷增長。凱恩斯有一套理論，認(rèn)為資本主義制度有能力通過名曰“內(nèi)在穩(wěn)定因素”的“國家調(diào)節(jié)經(jīng)濟”永遠解決繁

36、榮與危機交替出現(xiàn)的問題。而勞工運動則宣傳反映凱恩斯理論影響的觀點。這種種因素結(jié)合在一起，就使 工人階級覺悟的提高受到阻礙。4)從其交友知其為人。Tell me whom you associate with and I?ll tell you who you are.5)我過去所受的那些委屈和刺激，比起他來，也只是小巫見大巫，算不得什么。(李六如：六十年的變遷)What little pain and adversity I?ve experienced so far are simply nothing compared to what he?s gone through6)我們約他做攻守同

37、盟，本想彼此提攜，有福同享，有禍同當(dāng)，不料他倒先來沾我們的光了。(茅盾：子夜)When we got him to go in with us it was on the understanding that we sink or swim together, but now it turns out that he was only out to sponge on us!7)再試紡，頂多忙一陣子，過了幾天，還不是外甥打燈籠找舅(照舊)。(周而復(fù)：上海的早晨)And if we?re now going to have a check spinning it, it?ll only mean

38、 that we?ll be busier than ever for a spell and then after a few days things will be back to what they were before三、形合、意合與文體英語和漢語都有形合句和意合句。一般地說，英語形合句多，漢語意合句多，但其多少與文體密切相關(guān)。書面語沒有口語的輔助語言手段，如表情、手勢、語調(diào)等，又要表達復(fù)雜的邏輯關(guān)系，必須常常借助關(guān)聯(lián)詞語和其他形式手段，因而形合句比口語多?，F(xiàn)代漢語受西方語言的影響，形合句比古代漢語多。OJespersen對古漢語曾評論說：“Undoubtedly Chinese o

39、f the old style carries with it an impressive dignity through the immediate succession of nothing but momentous notions；it acquires a simple greatness because it throws away all unnecessary accessory elements and thus，as it were，takes night to pure thinking” 從古代漢語流傳下來的大量成語、諺語，大多勻稱對偶，節(jié)奏鏗鏘，瑯瑯上口，言筒意賅，至

40、今仍為漢語意合句的重要組成部分?，F(xiàn)代莊重文體、科技文體和論述文體較多采用形合句，以表達清晰的邏輯關(guān)系和復(fù)雜的思想內(nèi)容。例如嚴(yán)復(fù)以下幾段有關(guān)翻譯的著名論述，用漢代以前的雅語，常以單句代復(fù)句，以平列代主從，多取意合法：譯事三難信達雅。求其信已大難矣。顧信矣不達。雖譯猶不譯也。則達尚焉。 易曰修辭立誠。子曰辭達而已。又曰言之無文。行之不遠。三者乃文章正軌。亦即為譯事楷模。故信達而外。求其爾雅。此不僅期以行遠已耳。實則精理微言。用漢以前字法句法。則為達易。用近世利俗文字。則求達難。往往抑義就詞。毫厘千里。審擇于斯二者之間。夫固有所不得已也。豈釣奇哉。新理踵出。名目紛繁。索之中文。渺不可得。即有牽合。終

41、嫌參差。譯者遇此。獨有自具衡量。即義定名。一名之立。旬月踟躕。(嚴(yán)復(fù)：天演論譯例言)這幾段論述若譯成現(xiàn)代漢語和現(xiàn)代英語，則多取形合法：翻譯工作有三大困難：忠實、通順、典雅。要做到忠實于原文已經(jīng)很不容易，但如果只注意忠實于原文而忽略了譯文的通順，那么，即使譯了，也等于沒譯，可見譯文通順也是需要的。易經(jīng)指出：“修辭要注重表達準(zhǔn)確?！笨鬃右舱f過：“做文章，不過是把意思表達得明暢罷了?！彼终f：“言語缺乏文采，就不能擴大影響?！笨梢姡@三方面都是寫作所必須遵循的原則，也是翻譯的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。因此，除了表達準(zhǔn)確、通順之外，我還力求文字古雅，這不僅僅是為了擴大影響而已。其實，那些精辟的道理和微妙的語言，用漢代以前

42、的詞法和句法去翻譯，倒還易于表達，而用現(xiàn)代通俗文字去翻譯。反而不容易表達得明暢，而且往往為了遷就詞句而損害原意，使得譯文差之毫厘，謬以千里。對以上兩種情況，經(jīng)過反復(fù)考慮，我選擇了前者。這乃是出于不得已，而非追求文字的新奇啊!新的學(xué)說接二連三地出現(xiàn)，新的名稱也隨之多了起來。這些新名稱，從漢語里無法找到，即使勉強牽連湊合，畢竟嫌有出入。譯者遇到這種情況，只有運用自己的判斷力，按照新名稱的含義去確定譯名。有時為了確定一個譯名，往往要花上十天或個把月的時間，反復(fù)推敲。Translation has to do three difficult things：to be faithful，expressi

43、ve，and elegantIt is difficult enough to be faithful to the original，and yet if a translation is not expressiveit is tantamount to having no translationHence expressiveness should be required tooThe Book of Change says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulnessConfucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in languageHe adds that if one?s1anguage lacks graceit won?t go farThese three qualities，then，are the criterio