lawyer邏輯思路

1、做邏輯題的大體思路做邏輯關(guān)鍵是搞清楚為何對(duì),為何錯(cuò),看OG的主要目的也在這兒,不在做多少題。第一步:看問(wèn)題。第二步:看原文,分清結(jié)論和支持結(jié)論的理由,特別是原文有些信息只是背景知識(shí),不是理由,結(jié)論有時(shí)也不一定有THEREFORE之類(lèi)的詞,甚至有了這些詞,結(jié)論也可能和它不一樣,搞清結(jié)論要結(jié)合原文作者要表達(dá)的方向和理由支持的方向。第三步:從選項(xiàng)中分清有關(guān)無(wú)關(guān),留下有關(guān)的,去掉無(wú)關(guān)的。和結(jié)論討論的話題或TOPIC 無(wú)關(guān)的就是無(wú)關(guān)。第四步:按不同題型再最后分清正確與錯(cuò)誤選項(xiàng)。ASSUMPTION類(lèi)。一。ASSUMPTION類(lèi)。假設(shè)類(lèi)分充分型和必要型。充分型是問(wèn)題問(wèn)你下列哪個(gè)假設(shè),能使原文的結(jié)論P(yáng)ROP

2、OERL Y推出。必要型是問(wèn)題問(wèn)你原文的推理依賴下列哪個(gè)假設(shè)。他們的作題思路不同。充分類(lèi)因?yàn)樵慕Y(jié)論是必須能從證據(jù)推出(加上假設(shè),所以方法較簡(jiǎn)單,將選項(xiàng)加到原文的推理中,如果結(jié)論必成立(MUST BE,則為答案,如果結(jié)論有不成立的可能性,則錯(cuò),其中的特例是原文證據(jù)和結(jié)論的概念差異(GAP,說(shuō)出這個(gè)GAP就是假設(shè)。必要類(lèi)復(fù)雜點(diǎn),總體的方法是將選項(xiàng)取非,如果原文的結(jié)論必不成立,則為答案,如果還有成立的可能性,則錯(cuò)。取非就是假設(shè)選項(xiàng)是錯(cuò)的。其中有幾種特例。一是其他類(lèi)(其他原因,可能性。,它的假設(shè)是不存在其他(原因,可能。另一種是原文證據(jù)和結(jié)論的概念差異(GAP,說(shuō)出這個(gè)差異就是假設(shè)。還有一種是只考慮

3、單方面,其假設(shè)是其他方面沒(méi)影響。其特例是比較兩個(gè)東東,只比較某方面,便得出一個(gè)總體結(jié)論,其假設(shè)是其他方面沒(méi)影響。充分類(lèi)的加進(jìn)法和必要類(lèi)的取非法都可用于TEST所有選項(xiàng),但因時(shí)間較長(zhǎng),所以通常方法是用有關(guān)無(wú)關(guān)排除后剩下難分的選項(xiàng)才用這方法,很多情況下通過(guò)有關(guān)無(wú)關(guān)排除便只剩下一個(gè)。他們的特例則可以直接找答案。附加信息對(duì)原文推理的作用類(lèi)二。附加信息對(duì)原文推理的作用類(lèi)。該類(lèi)包括SUPPORT,WEAKEN,EV ALUATION三種。就是找出下列哪個(gè)選項(xiàng)對(duì)原文的推理能起作用(WEAKEN,SUPPORT或兩者都有。它本身有兩層意思。一是選項(xiàng)本身或和原文的證據(jù)結(jié)合對(duì)結(jié)論起問(wèn)題所說(shuō)的作用(支持或作用;多數(shù)

4、在這層面上便找到了答案或排除剩下一個(gè)。二。并且他們的證明力度比原文單獨(dú)的證據(jù)大或削弱原文的證據(jù)證明力,所以簡(jiǎn)單的重復(fù)原文證據(jù)(注意:有些正確選項(xiàng)好像重復(fù)原文證據(jù),實(shí)際是原文證據(jù)更強(qiáng)或更弱不是正確選項(xiàng)。這類(lèi)的正確選項(xiàng)有兩種形式:A是提供另外的證據(jù)直接支持或削弱結(jié)論,這種情況多數(shù)是原文的證據(jù)只是背景知識(shí),或和原文的結(jié)論相關(guān)性不大。B是使原文的證據(jù)和結(jié)論的距離拉近或拉遠(yuǎn),使結(jié)論的可能性變大或變小,加大或減少原文證據(jù)對(duì)結(jié)論的證明力。這時(shí)要特別注意原文證據(jù)對(duì)結(jié)論的證明角度,最難分的選項(xiàng)常在這里做文章。這類(lèi)題有三種特例可直接找答案:一是其他類(lèi)(其他可能性,其他原因,特別是原文給個(gè)實(shí)驗(yàn)或調(diào)查,然后得出某個(gè)結(jié)

5、論,這時(shí)WEAKEN的方法常是提供另一種可能性。第二類(lèi)是只考慮單方面(其中包括比較,WEAKEN的方式是指出這個(gè)錯(cuò)誤,說(shuō)有其他方面沒(méi)考慮。第三類(lèi)就是直接作用結(jié)論?？傊@類(lèi)題的重點(diǎn)在原文的結(jié)論。檢驗(yàn)正確選項(xiàng)的方法是選項(xiàng)是否使原文的結(jié)論正確的可能性更大或更小(和單純有原文的結(jié)論比。類(lèi)比關(guān)于類(lèi)比,除非閱讀量不大,否則,建議猜一個(gè),等有時(shí)間再作,類(lèi)比的關(guān)鍵是將事件當(dāng)作A,B,。,然后看其抽象后的邏輯。看選項(xiàng)那個(gè)抽象后和原文的一樣就是答案GAP(邏輯上的跳躍指原文的推理過(guò)程中有概念的跳躍,這個(gè)跳躍可以存在證據(jù)中,也可以存在證據(jù)和結(jié)論中(該題存在證據(jù)和結(jié)論中,這兩個(gè)概念不僅僅內(nèi)容不同,關(guān)鍵是邏輯上有跳躍,

6、即邏輯上不能從一個(gè)推出另一個(gè)(在原文的CONTEXT下,如該題的B選項(xiàng),就是因?yàn)槟軓腜RIORIYT 推出NOT INDIFFERNTL Y,所以不存在邏輯上的跳躍。該題討論見(jiàn)連接關(guān)于WEAKEN和SUPPORT的補(bǔ)充想法WEAKEN和SUPPORT的答案一般規(guī)律不強(qiáng),較難把握,這點(diǎn)對(duì)出題人也一樣,因?yàn)橛植荒艹鲆谎劬涂辞宓牡娜踔腔煜?xiàng),如果稍不小心又易出了有爭(zhēng)議的答案,因?yàn)槊鎸?duì)的畢竟是是全世界的考生。但是,所謂物極必反,表面無(wú)序的東西往往規(guī)律明顯,也正是很容易就出了有爭(zhēng)議的答案,出題人除了用MOST去排除這種可能性之外,必須有個(gè)明確的指導(dǎo)思想和界限去區(qū)分混淆選項(xiàng),去指導(dǎo)出混淆選項(xiàng)。這種指導(dǎo)思想

7、就是出相反的選項(xiàng)和與結(jié)論的具體性和特殊性無(wú)關(guān)的混淆選項(xiàng)。所以做這兩類(lèi)題,要特別注意結(jié)論的特殊性和具體性,無(wú)論如何強(qiáng)調(diào)對(duì)結(jié)論的重視都是不過(guò)分的,因?yàn)檫x項(xiàng)最綜是作用在結(jié)論上。如果一個(gè)選項(xiàng)滿足了兩個(gè)條件:方向上了和結(jié)論一致(排除相反選項(xiàng):即問(wèn)題問(wèn)支持,給削弱的答案。反之亦然,并且符合結(jié)論的特殊性和具體性。這個(gè)選項(xiàng)就是正確答案。所以做題時(shí),看原文時(shí)要找產(chǎn)生結(jié)論的前提和結(jié)論,在腦中形成推理結(jié)構(gòu)(因?yàn)?。所以?特別是結(jié)論,以結(jié)論作為有關(guān)無(wú)關(guān)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)去排除無(wú)關(guān)相,剩下的再排除相反選項(xiàng),就找到了答案。假設(shè)題如何取非取非意思就是假如某個(gè)選項(xiàng)是錯(cuò)的。大體有三種情況:1. all-not all/some-none/

8、always-not always/sometimes-never/everywhere-not everywhere/somewhere-nowhere/only one, exactly one-none, more than one/at least one, some-none2. 對(duì)于選項(xiàng)為條件句,將必要條件取非。3. 直接將謂語(yǔ)肯定變否定,或否定變肯定。if you get a high score of GMA T, you will be accepted by Harvard University.取非為:if you get a high score of GMA T, y

9、ou will NOTbe accepted by Harvard University充分必要條件指示詞1.introduce a sufficient condition:if/when/whenever/every/all/any/people who/in order to/roduce a necessary condition:then/only/only if/must/require/no,none(在句子開(kāi)頭3.unless equation:unless/except/until/without(其后面部分變成必要條件,其它加NOT變充分條件4.特例:the

10、only way to achieve success is to work hard. achieve success(充分條件only a professional consultant can solve the organizations problems. a professional consultant(必要條件no citizen can be denied the right to vote. denied the right to vote(充分條件. no citizen(必要條件1。denied the right to vote(充分條件no citizen(必要條件

11、。即citizenright to vote (逆否命題,所以ROBERCHU兄說(shuō)的其實(shí)一樣,只是原文的逆否命題。不要看丟RIGHT 前還有個(gè)DENIED。2。no citizen can be denied the right to vote. denied the right to vote. 即All citizen can NOT be denied the right to vote。即IF citizen,THEN canNOT be denied the right to vote. 即IF citizen,THEN right to vote。1。No A is B=all A

12、 are not B: 實(shí)際上這時(shí)A和B是兩個(gè)不相交的圈圈。2。All A are not B=If A, then not B3。同意了上面兩點(diǎn),就能明白原文的那句話。No citizen(Acan be denied the right to vote (B根據(jù)1,2。這句話就等于if citizen(A, then not be denied the right to vote(not B。即if citizen(A, then HA VE the right to vote(not B。充分條件是citizen,必要條件是have th right to vote。逆否命題:If be

13、 denied the right to vote, then no citizen。充分條件是be denied the right to vote。必要條件是no citizen。你要從本質(zhì),意思去理解,不是有何形式去轉(zhuǎn)換。IF。THEN是充分必要條件的普通方式,以理解,所以才將其他形式的充分必要條件轉(zhuǎn)換為它。它的本質(zhì)為:A成立,則B一定成立。All A are B.意思為所有A都是B。既然所有A是B。則凡是A的東西,就是B。所以等同于IF A,THEN B因果關(guān)系和充分必要關(guān)系是完全不同的關(guān)系,沒(méi)有交集。前者是一件事的發(fā)生導(dǎo)致另一件事的發(fā)生,時(shí)間上有先后,沒(méi)有推理關(guān)系。后者是一件事的發(fā)生

14、表示另一件事過(guò)去,現(xiàn)在或?qū)?lái)的發(fā)生,時(shí)間沒(méi)有先后,有推理關(guān)系。一道答案易混的題(兼論充分型假設(shè)題的解法24. No mathematical proposition can be proven true by observation. It follows that it is impossible to know any mathematical proposition to be true.The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?(A Only propositions that c

15、an be proven true can be known to be true(B Observation alone cannot be used to prove the truth of any proposition(C If a proposition can be proven true by observation then it can be known to be true.(D Knowing a proposition to be true is impossible only if it cannot be proved true by observation(E

16、Knowing a proposition to be true requires proving it true by observation我給這道題的目的有兩個(gè):1是說(shuō)明充分型假設(shè)(假設(shè)選項(xiàng),原文結(jié)論能合理推出的TEST (答案檢驗(yàn)法。2是這種題易混的答案。1。充分型假設(shè)的TEST:將選項(xiàng)加入到原文推理中,看看能否推出原文結(jié)論。即:正確答案+原文前提=原文結(jié)論。2。這種題最易混的答案為:相反的推理。即變?yōu)閺慕Y(jié)論往前提推。而正確答案常是以逆否命題的面目出現(xiàn)。所以增加了難度。3。做法:一是找出原文的推理。特別注意從那里推向那里。二是找出推理中的GAP。排除沒(méi)有這個(gè)GAP的概念的選項(xiàng),剩下常只

17、有兩個(gè)?？粗鴥蓚€(gè)那個(gè)是推理相反的選項(xiàng),排除掉它。剩下的就是正確的?；蛘哂肨EST去對(duì),看那個(gè)符合TEST。該題:推理:因?yàn)?mathematical proposition NOPROVE BY OBSERVATION,所以mathematical proposition IMPOSSIBLE KNOW TO BE TRUE(概念跳躍為PROVE By observation,KNOW。推理方向從NO PROVE BY OBSERVATION到 IMPOSSIBLE KNOW。(注意:這里沒(méi)有充分必要關(guān)系,即不能將原文寫(xiě)成NO PROVE BY OBSERVQATION-IMPOSSIBLE

18、KNOW。A:意思為proposition KNOWN TO BE TRUE->PROPOSITION CAN BE PROVE。該選項(xiàng)很容易混。因?yàn)橥评矸较驅(qū)?逆否命題從NO PROVE 到IMPOSSIBLE KNOW。且概念也很象,包含和被包含的概念(proposition包含mathematical proposition,概念比原文大在這類(lèi)題中是允許的。但它錯(cuò)在沒(méi)有說(shuō)明PROVE 的方式,原文有說(shuō)明PROVE的方式為BY OBSERVATION。這也是和E選項(xiàng)的唯一區(qū)別。所以A選項(xiàng)加BY OBSERVATION便為答案。B:沒(méi)有KNOW的概念。錯(cuò)C:CAN BE PROVE B

19、Y OBSERVATION- KNOWN TO BE TRUE。逆否命題為IMPOSSIBLE KNOWN TO BE TRUE->CANNOT BE PROVE BY OBSERVATION。和原文推理相反。錯(cuò)D:IMPOSSIBLE KNOWN TO BE TRUE->CANNOT BE PROVE BY OBSERVATION.和原文推理相反。錯(cuò)。E:KNOWN TO BE TRUE->CAN BE PROVE BY OBSERVATION(注意REQUIRE帶必要條件。逆否命題為:CANNOT BE PROVE BY OBSERVATION-IMPOSSIBLE KN

20、OWN TO BE TRUE。和原文推理方向一致。正確答案。注明:該題較特殊。除了兩個(gè)推理相反的選項(xiàng)。還有一個(gè)概念相似的混淆項(xiàng)。一道題(兼論如何理解結(jié)論One year ago a local government initiated an antismoking advertising campaign in local newspapers which it financed by imposing a tax on cigarettes of 20 cents per pack。One year later the number of people in the locality who

21、 smoke cigarettes had declined by 3 percent。Clearly what was said in the advertisements had an effect,although a small one on the number of people in the locality who smoke cigarettes.Which one of the following, if true, most helps to strengthen argument?(A Residents of the locality have not increas

22、ed their use of other tobacco products such as snuff and chewing tobacco since the campaign went into effect(B A substantial number of cigarette smokers in the locality who did not quit smoking during the campaign now smoke less than they did before it began(C Admissions to the local hospital for ch

23、ronic respiratory ailments were down by 15 percent one year after the campaign began(D Merchants in the locality responded to the local tax by reducing the price at which they sold cigarettes by 20 cents per pack(E Smokers in the locality had incomes that on average were 25 percent lower than those

24、of nonsmokers1。對(duì)于SUPPORT,ASSUMPTION和WEAKEN題,要特別重視結(jié)論的具體性和特殊性(我在“考試時(shí)如何做邏輯題”說(shuō)過(guò)。這就是這幾類(lèi)題排除有關(guān)無(wú)關(guān)的依據(jù),有時(shí)單憑這點(diǎn)就排除無(wú)關(guān)項(xiàng)后只剩答案。結(jié)論的具體性和特殊性就是要精確理解結(jié)論,理解每部分在原文中的的精確的具體的含義(結(jié)合證據(jù),是這意思,不是那意思,是指這個(gè),不是指那個(gè)。它是講個(gè)方面的問(wèn)題,講的是什麼,具體情況如何。這點(diǎn)無(wú)論如何強(qiáng)調(diào)都不過(guò)分。2。具體到本題,結(jié)論是:廣告所說(shuō)的內(nèi)容有效果。這是在討論政府的禁煙廣告是否有作用,在講廣告對(duì)禁煙的作用,它的效果在原文體現(xiàn)在一年后本地人吸煙人數(shù)減少3%(證據(jù)。這個(gè)效果是指

25、抽煙人數(shù)減少,不是指別的效果。這就是結(jié)論的特殊性和具體性。A。好像是排除他因。但它講的效果是用別的煙產(chǎn)品的效果,不是抽煙的效果,它講的是用的頻率沒(méi)有增加的效果,不是吸煙人數(shù)減少的效果。故無(wú)關(guān)B。它講的是用的量的效果,是程度的效果,不是人數(shù)多少的效果。故錯(cuò)C。易排除D。對(duì)廣告對(duì)抽煙人數(shù)減少的效果,排除一種可能。即抽煙人數(shù)減少有可能是煙太貴了(加稅,D排除這種可能,故加強(qiáng)結(jié)論。E。沒(méi)錢(qián),那就別抽煙,沒(méi)錢(qián)又不是發(fā)生在廣告后。無(wú)關(guān)。3。其實(shí)大家有沒(méi)有看出結(jié)論是因果型結(jié)論,結(jié)論可說(shuō)成是:本地政府的廣告導(dǎo)致抽煙人數(shù)減少3%。因果型結(jié)論的支持方式之一是排除其他原因。如果原文的One year later t

26、he number of people in the locality who smoke cigarettes had declined by 3 percent.改為One year later the cigarettes people in the locality smoke had declined by 3 percent.A 還有可能成為答案。請(qǐng)?bào)w會(huì)這兩者區(qū)別。對(duì)于SUPPORT,ASSUMPTION和WEAKEN題,要特別重視結(jié)論的具體性和特殊性(我在“考試時(shí)如何做邏輯題”說(shuō)過(guò)。這就是這幾類(lèi)題排除有關(guān)無(wú)關(guān)的依據(jù),有時(shí)單憑這點(diǎn)就排除無(wú)關(guān)項(xiàng)后只剩答案。結(jié)論的具體性和特殊性就是要精

27、確理解結(jié)論,理解每部分在原文中的的精確的具體的含義(結(jié)合證據(jù),是這意思,不是那意思,是指這個(gè),不是指那個(gè)。它是講個(gè)方面的問(wèn)題,講的是什麼,具體情況如何。這點(diǎn)無(wú)論如何強(qiáng)調(diào)都不過(guò)分。太精辟了, 大約三個(gè)星期前讀完OG,完成LG掃盲, 我的深刻感受是一定要緊扣題干的中心論點(diǎn),討論同一件事的才可能是正確選項(xiàng).這也基本上是我隨后的做題依據(jù).(不好意思, 別的招我都不會(huì):但我不知道它特別適用哪類(lèi)題,具體到選項(xiàng)分析也是很模糊的在運(yùn)用. 你這個(gè)例子非常好, 又給了我一個(gè)如何具體運(yùn)用的思考范例!其實(shí)我今天在重看OG, 對(duì)你的這段話特別有感觸. 如OG68A drug that is highly effecti

28、ve in treating many types of infection can, at present, be obtained only from the bark of the ibora, a tree that is quite rare in the wild. It takes the bark of 5,000 tree to make one kilogram of the drug, it follows, therefore, that continued production of the drug must inevitably lead to the ibora

29、's extinction.D. The ibora can be propagated from cuttings and grown under cultivation.E. The ibora generally grows in largely inaccessibly places.當(dāng)時(shí)我知道選D, 但我不知道為什么E不對(duì). 現(xiàn)在再看OG的解釋, 就是你上面那段話的具體運(yùn)用了:題干結(jié)論:continued production of the drug must inevitably lead to the ibora's extinction.而E 討論的是還能不能c

30、ontinue的問(wèn)題.即使它反駁了extinction, 也是因?yàn)闊o(wú)法繼續(xù)生產(chǎn)而使樹(shù)不會(huì)extinction, 而不是反駁結(jié)論所表述的持續(xù)的生產(chǎn)而使樹(shù)extinction.其實(shí)重要的不是答案,而是為什么對(duì),為什么錯(cuò),重要在推理的過(guò)程.這是我非常喜歡這個(gè)小教室的原因.每次都能學(xué)到東西.你的這種分析法,對(duì)我來(lái)說(shuō),比f(wàn)eifei邏輯的講解好太多了:再舉一個(gè)因果型結(jié)論的逆否命題加強(qiáng)例子-摘自XDFThe population of bird F declined between 1950-1960 and reached an all-time low in 1970. This declinatio

31、n was attributed by scientist to the widespread use of DDT in rural areas.Which of the following best support above claim made by the scientist?A. DDT was not generally in use in areas devoted to heavy industry.B. In the time since the use of DDT was banned in 1972, the population of F has been stea

32、dily increasing.C. F, like other birds, abondon eggs in the nests even if the eggs remain intact.D. Other birds that F prey on were not adversefly affected by DDT in the same area.E. Other birds that similiar to F are found in the same area as theF.結(jié)論是:F數(shù)量下降=科學(xué)家認(rèn)為是DDT的使用所導(dǎo)致的。逆否命題:不使用DDT=F數(shù)量不下降或上升。1。

33、攜隱說(shuō)得對(duì),該題是“無(wú)因無(wú)果”型加強(qiáng)。逆否命題是屬于充分必要的范疇,該題是因果關(guān)系的范疇,不要混淆。該題沒(méi)有充分必要關(guān)系,因?yàn)闆](méi)有充分必要條件的指示詞2。D錯(cuò)的原因是原文在講Bird F,和Other bird無(wú)關(guān)。D講的是Other bird。關(guān)于邏輯中數(shù)量范圍的問(wèn)題數(shù)量的范圍是邏輯題?？?特別是MUST BE問(wèn)題,混淆答案也常來(lái)于此。下面一題是LSAT,先討論,后再公布答案及解釋。(V ALARIE說(shuō)得對(duì),紀(jì)念完了,我們要更加努力去學(xué)習(xí)The importance of the ozone layer to terrestrial animals is that it entirely f

34、ilters out some wavelengths of light but lets others through. Holes in the ozone layer and the dangers associated with these holes are well documented. However, one danger that has not been given sufficient attention is that these holes could lead to severe eye damage for animals of many species.Whi

35、ch one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above, if they are true.A. All wavelengths of sunlight that can cause eye damage are filtered out by the ozone layer where it is intact.B. Few species of animals live on a part of the earth's surface that is not threatened by h

36、oles in the ozone layerC. Some species of animals have eyes that will not suffer any damage when exposed to unfiltered sunlightD. A single wavelength of sunlight can cause severe damage to the eyes of most species of animalsE. Some wavelengths of sunlight that cause eye damage are more likely to rea

37、ch the earth's surface where there are holes in the ozone layer than where there are not,SORRY,這道題給忘了。大家的答案都對(duì)了,是EThe importance of the ozone layer to terrestrial animals is that it entirely filters out some wavelengths of light but lets others through. Holes in the ozone layer and the dangers as

38、sociated with these holes are well documented. However, one danger that has not been given sufficientattention is that these holes could lead to severe eye damage for animals of many species.Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above, if they are true.A. All wavele

39、ngths of sunlight that can cause eye damage are filtered out by the ozone layer where it is intact.錯(cuò)的原因:All wavelengths 太strong。原文只知完好的臭氧層濾掉一部分光,讓一部分通過(guò),并說(shuō)通過(guò)的那部分對(duì)很多動(dòng)物有害。從這點(diǎn)很容易誤認(rèn)有害的都給濾掉了。其實(shí)原文沒(méi)說(shuō)是否那通過(guò)的一部分是否含有有害波長(zhǎng)。所以錯(cuò)。B. Few species of animals live on a part of the earth's surface that is not threate

40、ned by holes in the ozone layer錯(cuò)的原因:原文只說(shuō)有HOLE可能會(huì)使很多動(dòng)物受傷害,從這點(diǎn)也許可以推出有動(dòng)物生活在受HOLE威脅的地方,但原文沒(méi)說(shuō)有沒(méi)有動(dòng)物生活在不受HOLE威脅的地方,故錯(cuò)。C. Some species of animals have eyes that will not suffer any damage when exposed to unfiltered sunlight錯(cuò)的原因:有些人容易選這個(gè),因?yàn)樵淖詈笠痪湓捳f(shuō)HOLE會(huì)傷害很多動(dòng)物的眼睛,就是說(shuō)很多動(dòng)物的眼睛會(huì)受傷害,既然有很多的眼睛受傷害,就有不受傷害的。錯(cuò)。關(guān)鍵是理解原文最后

41、一句話的many。其實(shí)相當(dāng)于some ,表達(dá)的是有的概念,就是可以是1-100。相對(duì)或取非的概念為NONE。就是說(shuō)它們可以包括全部100。所以有可能全部動(dòng)物眼睛都會(huì)受HOLE傷害。即C可能對(duì),也可能不對(duì),不是MUST BE TRUE。故錯(cuò)。D. A single wavelength of sunlight can cause severe damage to the eyes of most species of animals錯(cuò)的原因:也是容易選錯(cuò),因?yàn)樵牡淖詈笠痪湓捈由现形膶?duì)MANY和MOST(都是很多的理解。其實(shí)MOST(多數(shù)是指51-100。MANY指1-100。所以不能從MANY

42、 推出MOST,從MOST倒可以推出MANY。即原文用MOST,D選項(xiàng)用MANY,則為答案。E. Some wavelengths of sunlight that cause eye damage are more likely to reach the earth's surface where there are holes in the ozone layer than where there are not, 從原文最后兩句話可知完好的臭氧層濾掉了部分有害的光線,則說(shuō)明有洞時(shí),有害的光線更易到達(dá)地球。故對(duì)。最后強(qiáng)調(diào)一點(diǎn)該問(wèn)題雖然是MOST STRONGL Y SUPPORTE

43、D,但不會(huì)出現(xiàn)兩個(gè)能從原文MUST BE得出的答案,因?yàn)樵擃}歸為MUST BE TRUE題型,當(dāng)然不存在支持的程度問(wèn)題。FLAW IN THE REASONING QUESTIONSThe correct answer will identify the error in the authors reasoning and describe that error in general terms. Closely examine the relationship between the premises and the conclusion1. UNCERTAIN USE OF A TERM

44、OR CONCEPTAmbiguous use/different meaning/in two different ways/equivocate/shift in meaning/fails to define2. SOURCE ARGUMENT(針對(duì)人Attacks the person (or source instead of the argument they advance.Makes an attack on the character of opponentsIt is directed against the proponent of a claim rather than

45、 against the claim itselfHe directs his criticism against the person making the argument rather than directing it against the argument itselfIt draws conclusions about the merit of a position and about the content of that position from evidence about the positions sourceAssuming that a claim is fals

46、e on the grounds that the person defending it is of questionable character3. CIRCULAR REASONING(the premise and the conclusion are identical in meaning Assumes as true what is supposed to be proved.It assumes what it seeks to establishArgues circularly by assuming the conclusion is true in stating t

47、he premisesPresupposes the truth of what it sets out to proveThe argument assumes what it is attempting to demonstrateIt takes for granted the very claim that it sets out to establishIt offers, in place of support for its conclusion, a mere restatement of that conclusion4. ERROR OF CONDITIONAL REASO

48、NINGIt is often used the word “sufficient(assured”, “necessary(required” to indicate this kind of errors Taking the nonexistence of sth as evidence that a necessary precondition for that thing also did not exist (MISTAKEN NEGA TIONMistakes being sufficient to justify punishment for being required to

49、 justify it (MISTAKEN REVERSALIt treats sth that is necessary for bringing about a state of affairs as sth that is sufficient to bring about a state of affair(CONFUSES A NECESSARY CONDITION FOR A SUFFICIENT CONDITIONFrom the assertion that sth is necessary to a moral order, the argument concludes th

50、at that thing is sufficient for an element of the moral order to be realized (CONFUSES A NECESSARY CONDITION FOR A SUFFICIENT CONDITIONConfuses a sufficient condition with a required condition (CONFUSE A SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR A NECESSARY CONDITIONInfers from the idea that the current geography of

51、 modern cities resulted from a particular cause that it could only have resulted from that cause.5. MISTAKEN CAUSE AND EFFECTNote the frequency with which the word “cause ” or ”effect” are used(1 assuming a causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of eventsmistakes a temporal relationship fo

52、r a causal relationship(2 assuming a causal relationship when only a correlation existsconfusing the coincidence of two events with a causal relation between the twoassumes a causal relationship where only a correlation has been indicated(3 failure to consider an alternative cause for the effect, or

53、 an alternative cause for both the cause and the effectfails to exclude an alternative explanation for the observed effectoverlooks the possibility that the same thing may causally contribute both to education and togood health(4 failure to consider that the events may be reversedthe author mistakes

54、 an effect for cause6. STRAW MANThe author attempts to attack an opponents position by ignoring the actual statement made by the opposing speaker and instead distorts and refashions the argument, making it weaker in the process. Often use the phrase “what youre saying is” or ”if I understand you cor

55、rectly” to preface the refashioned and weakened argumentRefutes a distorted version of an opposing positionMisdescribing the stu dent representatives position, thereby making it easier to challenge Portrays opponents views as more extreme than they really areDistorts the proposal advanced by opponen

56、ts7. GENERAL LACK OF RELEVANT EVIDENCE FOR THE CONCLUSIONThe author cites irrelevant dataDraws a conclusion that is broader in scope than is warranted by the evidence advancedIt uses irrelevant facts to justify a claim about the quality of the disputed productIt fails to give any reason for the judg

57、ment it reachesIt introduces information unrelated to its conclusion as evidence in support of that conclusion8. INTERNAL CONTRADICTIONBases a conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with each otherThe author makes incompatible assumptionsIntroduce information that actually contradicts the conclu

58、sionOffers in support of its conclusion pieces of evidence that are mutually contradictorySome of the evidence presented in support of the conclusion is inconsistent with other evidence providedAssumes sth that it later denies, resulting a contradiction9. APPEAL FALLACIES(1 appeal to authoritythe judgment of experts is applied to a matter in which their expertise is irrelevantthe argument inappropriately appeals to the authority of the majorit relies on the judgment of experts in a matter to which their expertise is irrelevant