linguistics and language teaching - 廈門大學(xué)外文學(xué)院81

1、Linguistics andLanguage Teaching Lecture 9Approaches to Language TeachingnLanguage teaching usually refers to the teaching of any language, either as a first language, second language or as a foreign language. In order to improve the efficiency of language teaching, many approaches have been used. A

2、pproaches to Language TeachingnLanguage teaching has experienced great changes in the world. The 20th century witnessed a dramatic transformation of the role of the English language in the world. Approaches to Language TeachingnChanges in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected t

3、he development of linguistic theories. nFrom the 17th to the 19th centuries, linguistics was characterized by traditional grammar. Correspondingly, the grammar-translation method was widely used in the teaching of Latin in European schools. In the grammar-translation method, priority was given to re

4、ading and translation of written language. Approaches to Language TeachingnDue to the political, economic and technical changes, English has obtained a new role and is widely taught as an official language in the newly independent countries, as a second language to new immigrants in English-speaking

5、 countries, and as a foreign language in many non-English-speaking countries. Approaches to Language TeachingnThe new role of the language teaching has brought about different approaches to language. While the traditional grammar-translation method and its various variations are still used in Englis

6、h-teaching classes, applied linguists and teachers have formulated many new approaches. Approaches to Language TeachingnThe natural method (also called the direct method) of language teaching was quite successfully used in the various language schools in the USA and Europe in the late 19th century a

7、nd the early 20th century. In the post-World War I decades, the direct method was adopted into English language teaching (ELT) and laid a solid intellectual and practical foundation for the development of ELT as an autonomous profession. Approaches to Language TeachingnIn the decades during and afte

8、r the Second World War, a structural approach was formulated with behaviorist psychology as its psychological basis and structural linguistics as its linguistic basis. Behavioral psychology views language learning as one of human behaviors that can be explained by the Stimulus-Response model. System

9、atic reinforcements can lead to the establishment of a connection between a stimulus or stimulus situation (s) and the organisms response (R).Approaches to Language TeachingnIn the late 1950s and the 1960s Chomsky formulated the mentalistic approach to language acquisition, which considered human be

10、havior much more complex than animal behavior. According to Chomsky, everyone is born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which enables the child to make hypotheses about the structure of language in general, and the structure of the language being learned in particular. Approaches to Language

11、 TeachingnLater, applied linguists brought about the situational approach and the notional/functional method. Meanwhile, based on a broader framework for the description of language use called communicative competence proposed by Hymes, the communicative approach to language teaching came into being

12、. The Relation of Linguistics to Language Teaching nBoth linguistics and language teaching takes language as their subject. Linguistics aims at exploring the general principles upon which all languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in the societies in which they are used. T

13、he achievements of linguistic inquiry can be utilized for effective language teaching. The bridge between linguistics and language teaching is applied linguistics. The Relation of Linguistics to Language Teaching nIn the broad sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic knowle

14、dge to the solution of various problems in other domains of science from the invention of language for a certain minority nationality to machine translation. In the narrow sense, this term is used to refer to language teaching, particularly the teaching of a second language or a foreign language. Sy

15、llabus Design nSyllabus refers to the description of the planning and framework for a course of study, and may list the learning goals, objectives, contents, processes, resources and means of evaluation planned for students.nSyllabus is fundamental to language teaching. Before any course is started,

16、 and before any materials are written, a decision has to be taken about what the students are going to learn. Once a syllabus exists, materials can be written and teachers can decide how long they need to spend on various parts of the syllabus and how long they will need in class to complete it. Gra

17、mmatical SyllabusnGrammatical syllabus takes grammar as the basis for (foreign) language teaching. To the advocates of this syllabus, grammar is primary in the study of a foreign language, and the study of grammar is not only beneficial to the learners comprehension and translation of the target lan

18、guage but also to the development of the learners intelligence. Grammatical SyllabusnIn grammatical syllabus, units of learning are determined by the grammatical categories of the language. The items to be learned are labeled in grammatical terms such as the definite article, adjectives, past tense,

19、 conditionals, comparative and superlative, and so on. The grammatical rules and vocabulary are carefully ordered according to factors such as frequency, complexity and usefulness. n(a) Stress is laid on the written language rather than the spoken language.n(b) The instruction of grammar not only fo

20、cuses on what is regular but also on what is irregular.n(c) The classroom instructions are presented in the native language.n(d) The major teaching method is translation and the mastery of the learned grammatical rules is checked through large quantities of written translation and writing practice.G

21、rammatical Syllabusn(a) Stress is laid on the written language rather than the spoken language.n(b) The instruction of grammar not only focuses on what is regular but also on what is irregular.n(c) The classroom instructions are presented in the native language.n(d) The major teaching method is tran

22、slation and the mastery of the learned grammatical rules is checked through large quantities of written translation and writing practice.Situational Syllabus nSituational syllabus refers to a syllabus in which the instruction of language teaching is planned around the situations in which the linguis

23、tic forms to be taught are normally used. Situational syllabus has sociolinguistics as its theoretical basis. Its assumption is that language always occurs in a social context and should not be separated from its context when it is being taught. In any case, our choice of linguistic forms is frequen

24、tly restricted by the nature of the situation in which we are using language. Situational Syllabus nA lesson written in the situational syllabus generally starts with a conversation in a certain situation (e.g. at the airport, in a shop, or talking about the weather). Then typical vocabulary and str

25、uctures used in this situation are presented for the learner to bear in mind, and put into practice and, above all, into application in future real communication. The resulting materials will, of course, be linguistically heterogeneous, since natural situations do not contain language of the uniform

26、ity of structure which characterizes the grammatical syllabus.Communicative Syllabus nCommunicative syllabus focuses language teaching on the development of the learners communicative competence. The communicative syllabus is based on the assumption that language is used for communication, and that

27、learning a language is learning to communicate. Communicative Syllabus nThe communicative syllabus emphasizes the simultaneous development of the learners linguistic competence and pragmatic competence. The linguistic items to be studied are dependent upon the learners purposes of the communication

28、he expects to participant in. Before designing a syllabus, the teacher should try to find out the learners needs and then may proceed to decide what vocabulary, structures and function the learners should master and to what degree they should master these items. These structures and functions form t

29、he basis for a communicative syllabus, the teaching goal of which should be the development of the learners ability to use the structures and functions to realize their communicative goals. Language Testing na) The Feedback FunctionnLanguage tests can provide teachers and students with feedback info

30、rmation so that they can improve their teaching and learning. The results of the test can help them to adapt their behaviors according to the teaching goals. They can also help to foster the students motive to learn the language well. This function lays stress on the process rather than the result o

31、f teaching and thus is of greater pedagogical significance.Language Testing nb) The Assessment FunctionnTests are often used to assess students achievements in language learning. Since students are normally scored at the end of a course, this function focuses on the result of language teaching and i

32、s widely used by the teachers and educational administers.Language Testing nc) The Backwash FunctionnLanguage testing can function as a backwash for the other aspects of language teaching. The results of language testing can help us to assess whether the teaching goal is appropriate, valid and to wh

33、at degree it has been achieved. Moreover, the results of language testing also provide feedback for the language teaching activities.nvaliditynValidity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. This is the most important index for the quality of a test. The notion

34、 of validity can be approached from content validity, construct validity, face validity, washback validity, and criterion-related validity. nContent validity refers to whether the test adequately covers the syllabus area to be tested, or in other words. Content relevance and content coverage are oft

35、en taken into consideration. nConstruct validity concerns what theoretical construct on which the test is based. Face validity deals with not what the test actually measures, but to what it appears superficially to measure. It is determined by the impression of the testees who takes the test, the ad

36、ministrative personnel who decide on its use, and other technically untrained observers. nWashback validity refers to whether the test can reflect the result of the teaching and learning that precedes it and throw light on future teaching and learning. nCriterion-related validity is also called the

37、statistic validity. It refers to the validity represented by the relation between the test scores and the criterion scores.nReliabilitynReliability refers to whether a test produces the consistent results when given to the same candidates twice in succession or marked be different people. This means

38、 how far we can depend on the results that a test produces or, in other words, how far the results could be produced consistently. If their scores vary significantly between this time and another, then the test is not quite reliable. nEfficiencynThe third important criterion for test assessment is e

39、fficiency. This involves questions of economy, ease of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results. The longer it takes to construct, administer and score, and the more skilled personnel and equipment are involved. Today, many tests are administered online. Efficiency is also related to f

40、inancial viability. Types of Language Tests nThe discrete point testnIn a discrete point test, language is segmented into many small linguistic points and the four language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Test questions are designed to test these skills and linguistic points. nA

41、discrete point test consists of many questions on a large number of linguistic points, but each question tests only one linguistic point. Objective questions are widely used in the discrete point test. Thus the scoring is objective and the results are quite reliable and easy to be analyzed statistic

42、ally. TOEFL is a typical discrete point test. Types of Language Tests nThe Integrative TestnThis kind of test is also called the pragmatic test. Contrary to the discrete point test, the integrative test envisages human linguistic competence as an integrative whole and thus emphasizes the simultaneou

43、s testing of the testees multiple linguistic competence from various perspectives. Types of Language Tests na. Cloze dictation: This is a combination of cloze test and dictation. The testees are required to fill in the blanks in a passage while they are listening to the same material. The deleted pa

44、rt may be a single word, or a sentence, or a larger unit.nb. Oral cloze test: The testees are required to provide what is deleted in a passage orally during the pause while listening to the material. The blanks are usually at the end of a sentence. nc. Paraphrase recognition: The testees are require

45、d to read a passage and then choose from the given options the sentence which best summarizes the main idea of the passage. In another form, the testees are required to listen to a sentence and choose from the options provided the one that best retains the meaning of that sentence.nd. Questions & An

46、swers: The testees are required to listen to a dialogue first and then choose from the options provided the best answer to the question they hear.Types of Language Tests nThe Communicative TestnThis kind of test takes the theory of sociolinguistics and the communicative approach to language teaching

47、 as its theoretical bases. Accordingly, the communicative test aims at testing the testees mastery of the target language through accomplishing certain tasks in real or nearly-real situation. In this sense, it is a task-based test. nThe skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are tested c

48、omprehensively. Types of Language Tests nThe Achievement TestnThe Proficiency TestnThe Aptitude TestnThe Diagnosis TestLanguage Test Development nDesigning the test blueprintnthe objectives of the test nthe type of the testnthe contents of the test nthe question types of the testnthe proportion of e

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