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1、RecentTransformationsAdministrationTheoryarevolutioninpublicmanagementSincetheearly1980smuchworkhasbeenconductedinpublicadministrationtheoryandpracticethatclaimstogobeyondtheconservativeapproachinthefield.Thisaliberalization”ofpublicadministrationisrecognizedtodayastheNPMtrend.Theself-identityproble

2、mofpublicadministrationwasgreatlyaggravatedbythelaunchingoftheideaofNPM.AsnotedbyKettlandMitward,“publicmanagementisneithertraditionalpublicadministrationnorpolicyanalysissinceitborrowsheavilyfromavarietyofdisciplinesandmethodologicalapproaches."Mainlydrawingontheexperienceofthebusiness/industr

3、ial/privatesector,scholarshavesuggestedtakingamoredemandingattitudetothedynamics,activity,andproductivityofpublicorganizations:however,“competingacademicdisciplinesdueledtoestablishbridgeheadsor,worse,virtuallyignoredeachotherastheydevelopedparalleltracksonrelatedproblems:Consequently,across-fertili

4、zation,whichcouldhaveacceleratedlearningandimprovedperformanceofpublicsystems,wasdelayed.WhataretherootsofNPM,andinwhatwayisitactuallyanewarenainthestudyofthepublicsector?Severaltheoreticalfoundations,aswellaspracticalfactors,cananswerthesequestions.Thefirst,andprobablythedeepestsourceofNPM,emergesf

5、romthedistinctionbetweentwoproximatetermsorfieldsofresearch:administrationandmanagement.Asnotedearlier,sincethelate1880sthemonopolyonthetermadministrationhasbeenheldbypoliticalscientists.SuchscholarsasGoodnowandWilsonwerethosewhoperceivedpublicadministrationasaseparateanduniquedisciplinethatshouldco

6、nsistofindependenttheory,practicalskills,andmethods.Thetermmanagement,however,referredtoamoregeneralarena,usedbyallsocialscientistsandmainlybythosewhopracticeandadvancetheoryinorganizationalpsychologyandbusinessstudies.Consequently,conservativeadministrationsciencetendstoanalyzetheoperationoflargebu

7、reaucraticsystemsaswellasothergovernmentalprocessesaimedatpolicyimplementation.Management,ontheotherhand,referstothegeneralpracticeofempoweringpeopleandgroupsinvarioussocialenvironmentsandinhandlingmultipleorganizationalresourcestomaximizeefficiencyandeffectivenessintheprocessofproducinggoodsorservi

8、ces.AconsensusexiststodaythatNPMhasbecomeextremelypopularinthetheoryandpracticeofpublicarenas,butcanwedefineitasalong-rangerevolutioninpublicadministrationtheory?Nocomprehensiveanswerexiststothisquestion.SomewillsaythatNPMhasonlyrevivedanoldspiritofmanagerialismandapplieditinthepublicsector.Otherswi

9、llarguethatthisinitselfhasbeenamomentouscontributiontopublicadministrationasadisciplineindeclineRelyingonanextensivesurveyofpublicmanagementresearchinAmerica,GarsonandOvermanarguedthatthisincreasingpopularitywasduetothemorevirileconnotationofthetermmanagementthanadministration.Overtheyears,agrowingn

10、umberofpoliticalscientistshaveperceivedpublicadministrationasanoldanddecliningdiscipline;itwasunabletoprovidethepublicwithadequatepracticalanswerstoitsdemands,andmoreoveritlefttheoreticianswithepidemicsocialdilemmaswaitingforexploration.Interestingevidenceofthisprocesscouldbefoundinmanyschoolsofpubl

11、icadministration,whichduringthe1980sand1990sdecidedtobecomeschoolsofpublicmanagement.Lookingforalternativeideas,managementtheorywasproposedasthesourceforanewandrefreshingperspective.Itwassuggestedthatpublicmanagementratherthanpublicadministrationcouldcontributetoanewunderstandingofhowtorunthegovernm

12、entmoreefficientlyandtherebytosurmountsomeofitspandemicailments.Inanattempttomorefullyunderstandandadvocatethisinclination,PerryandKraemerproposedthatagreaterimpactofnewideasandmethodsfromthefieldofpublicmanagementontheadministrativesciencewasessentialandnatural.Itreflectedaspecialfocusofmodernpubli

13、cadministrationthatwasnottobeignored.RaineyclaimedthatthisprocesswasaresultofthegrowingunpopularityofgovernmentduringtheI960sand1970s.Ottetal.alsostatedthatpublicmanagementwasamajorsegmentofthebroaderfieldofpublicadministrationsinceitfocusedontheprofessionandonthepublicmanagerasapractitionerofthatpr

14、ofession.Furthermore,Itemphasizedwellacceptedmanagerialtools,techniques,knowledge,andskillsthatcouldbeusedtoturnideasandpolicyintoa(successful)programofaction.DuringthelasttwodecadesmanydefinitionshavebeensuggestedforNPM.NothingseemswrongwiththerelativelyoldperceptionofGarsonandOverman,however,whode

15、fineditas”aninterdisciplinarystudyofthegeneticaspectsofadministration.,ablendoftheplanning,organizing,andcontrollingfunctionsofmanagementwiththemanagementofhuman,financial,physical,informationandpoliticalresources.Asfurtherdiscussedbyotherscholarssixdifferencesexistbetweenpublicadministrationandpubl

16、icmanagementthatmaketheformeranewfieldofstudyandpractice.Theseare:(1)theinclusionofgeneralmanagementfunctionssuchasplanning,organizing,control,andevaluationinlieuofdiscussionofsocialvaluesandconflictsofbureaucracyanddemocracy;(2)aninstrumentalorientationfavoringcriteriaofeconomyandefficiencyinlieuof

17、equity,responsiveness,orpoliticalsalience;(3)apragmaticfocusonmidlevelmanagersinlieuoftheperspectiveofpoliticalorpolicyelites;(4)atendencytoconsidermanagementasgeneric,oratleast,tominimizethedifferencesbetweenpublicandprivatesectorsinlieuofaccentuatingthem;(5)asingularfocusontheorganization,withexte

18、rnalrelationstreatedinthesamerationalmannersinternaloperationsinlieuofafocusonlaws,institutions,andpoliticalbureaucraticprocesses;and(6)astrongphilosophicallinkwiththescientificmanagementtraditioninlieuofclosetiestopoliticalscienceorsociologyWhiletheemergenceofNPMisfrequentlyrelatedtotheincreasingim

19、pactofpositivistbehavioralscienceonthestudyofpoliticsandgovernment,thepracticalaspectofthisprocessshouldalsobeconsidered.PracticalpublicmanagersaswellaspoliticalscientistswillrefertothedifficultiesinpolicymakingandpolicyimplementationthatconfrontedmanywesternsocietiesinEurope,America,andelsewheredur

20、ingthe1970s.ThesepracticaldifficultiesareviewedtodayasanimportanttriggerfortheevolutionofNPM.ReviewingtworecentbooksonNPM,KhademianarguesthatAmericanandBritishadvocatesofthefieldfindcommongroundinexplainingwhysuchreformsarenecessary.Theproblemofaninflexiblebureaucracythatoftencouldnotrespondefficien

21、tlytothepublicneedsconflictedwithsomebasicdemocraticprinciplesandvaluesinthesecountries.PeterAucoinelegantlysummarizesa“trinityof'broadlybasedchallengeswithwhichwesterndemocracieshavestruggledandprobablycontinuetostruggleinthefuture,partlythroughmanagementreform.Theseare:(1)growingdemandsforrest

22、raintinpublic-sectorspending,(2)increasingcynicismregardinggovernmentbureaucraciesresponsivenesstocitizenconcernsandpoliticalauthorityanddissatisfactionwithprogrameffectiveness,and(3)aninternational,market-driveneconomythatdoesnotdefertodomesticpolicyefforts.Itseemsthatthesechallengeshaveledmanywest

23、erngovernmentsinAmerica,Britain,NewZealand,Canada,andelsewheretotherecognitionthatsoundreformsandchangesshouldbemadeinthepublicservice.Scholarsagreetodaythatatleastsomeoftheaccumulatedwisdomoftheprivatesectorinthesecountriesistransferabletothepublicsector.Inanattempttoliberatethepublicsectorfromitso

24、ldconservativeimageandtediouspracticeNPMwasadvancedasarelevantandpromisingalternative.NewPublicManagementliteraturehastriedtorecognizeanddefinenewcriteriathatmayhelpindeterminingtheextenttowhichpublicagenciessucceedinmeetingthegrowingneedsofthepublic.NewPublicManagementhascontinuouslyadvocatedtheimp

25、lementationofspecificperformanceindicatorsusedinprivateorganizationstocreateaperformance-basedcultureandmatchcompensatorystrategiesinthesesystems.IthasrecommendedthattheseindicatorsbeappliedinthepublicsectorsincetheycanfunctionasmilestonesonthewaytobetterefficiencyandeffectivenessforpublicagenciesMo

26、reover,citizens'awarenessoftheperformanceofpublicserviceswassuggestedasacoreelementofNPMsinceitcanincreasethepoliticalpressureplacedonelectedandappointedpublicservants,therebyenhancingbothmanagerialandallocativeefficiencyinthepublicsector.ScholarswhoadvocateNPMlikenthisprocessofpublicaccountabil

27、itytostakeholders/citizenstotheroleadoptedbyfinancialreportingintheprivate/corporatesector.Asintheprivatesector,increasingexterior-relatedoutcomescanhaveaprofoundimpactoninternalcontrolmechanisms,asmanagersandpublicservantsbecomemoresensitivetotheirdutiesandhighlycommittedtoservetheirpubliccustomers

28、.Inviewoftheabove,andlookingtowardthefuture,LynnsuggestedthattheNPMofthelate1990shadthreeconstructivelegaciesforthefieldofpublicadministrationandfordemocratictheoryandpractice.Thesewere:(1)astrongeremphasisonperformance-motivatedadministrationandinclusionintheadministrativecanonofperformance-orientedinstitutionalarrangements,structuralforms,andmanagerialdoctrinesfittedtoparticularcontext;inotherwords,advancesinthestateofthepublicmanagementart;(2)aninternationaldialogueonandastrongercomparativedimensiontothestudyofsta

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