《新編語言學(xué)教程》課后答案

1、 semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.(2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning of the sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false, and knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that it plays in the

2、truth or falsehood of the sentence containing it.(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names.(4) behaviorist theory: the view that the mean ing of a linguistic form is de?ned as observable behaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.(5) use t

3、heory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning of an expression is determined by its use in communication and more generally, in social interaction.(6) sense: the inherent part of an expression stogethengwith the context,determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense of a noun ph

4、rase such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events and qualities they stand for. An

5、 example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object tree (referertt)e real world.(8) conceptual meaning:It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms ofwhat they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitive meaning. It is the essential and inextricable p

6、art of what language is and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. For instance, the conceptual meaning of English is any male person or male animal.(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refe

7、rs to, over its purely conceptual meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of“ woman is emotional, frail,inconstant, irrational, etc.(10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressions into asystem which shows their relationship to one another. For example, kinship terms such

8、 as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a semantic ?eld whose relevant features include generation, sex, membership of the father s or mother s side of family.(11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic ?eld of a language. For instance, in English w

9、e have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for male and female cousin.(12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyzesa word into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the English wor

10、d boy may be shown as +human+male-adult.(13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of word may be described as a combination of semantic components or features. For example, the feature +male is part of the meaning of father, and so is the feature +adult, but other f

11、eatures are needed to make up the whole meaning of father. Often, semantic features are established by contrast and can be stated in terms of + and -, e.g. woman has the semantic features +human, -male and +adult.(14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexical items, e.g.

12、 small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning between lexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more gene

13、ral one (the superordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.(17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not only sections of the body but de?ned in terms of speci?c functions. For example, the head is the part of the body which carries the most importan

14、t sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, or cause.(19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of

15、one (the second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Corday assassinated Marat and Marat is dead; if the ?rst is true, the second must be true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. some tea has already been t

16、aken “ is a presupposition “Take some more tea! 2. (1) He waited by the bank.a. He waited by the ?nan cial institution which people can keep their money in or borrowfrom.b. He waited by the bank of the river.(2) Is he really that kind?a. Is he really that type of person?b. Is he really that kind-hea

17、rted?(3) We bought her dog biscuits.a. We bought dog biscuits for her.b. We bought biscuits for her dog.(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.a. He saw that gasoline container explode.b. He saw that gasoline may explode.(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes

18、in total.b. Each of the ?fty soldiers shot three wild foxes.(6) He saw her drawing pencils.a. He saw her pencils for drawing.b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpfuliron: strong, brave,

19、hard, determinedmole: traitor, betrayal, spysnow: pure, virgin, cleanstreet: homeless, living hard, pitiable5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory(2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smellThese words are less marked in th

20、eir sets because they are more usual and tend to be used more frequently. They consist of only one morpheme and are easier to learn and remember than others. They are also often broader in meaning and cannot be described by using the name of another member ofthe same ?eld.6. homophones: sea-see, bre

21、ak-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace, househomonyms: ear.7. In a semantic ?eld, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status. The less marked members of the same semantic ?eld (1) are usually easier to learn and remember than more marked members; (2) consist of only one

22、morpheme in contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot be described by using the name of another member of the same ?eld; (4) tend to be used more frequently than more marked terms; (5) broader in meaning than more marked members; (6) are not the result of the metaphorical usage of the name of anot

23、her object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram.The (a) and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.The (b) words are animals.(2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, hollerThe (a) and (b) wor

24、ds are realized by sounds.The (a) words are normal voice quality.The (b) words are produced by modifying one s normal voice quality.(3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swimb. ?y, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang -glideThe (a) and (b) words are sports (movement).The (a) words are sports without in

25、struments.The (b) words are sports with instruments.(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations with respect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of

26、 utterance.(3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for.(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(5) presupposition: im

27、plicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. some tea has already been taken ” is apresupposition of “Take some more tea! (6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developed by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe

28、 that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “ dcthings “ to perform acts. In saying“Sorry ” , you are performing an act of apology.(7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location) and intended meaning (illocution) are different. For exam

29、ple, Can you pass the salt? is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for action.(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Grice whereby those involved in communication assume that both parties will normally seek to coope

30、rate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of 4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutors as a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such as saving face, establis

31、hing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation.This principle requires speakers to“ minimize the expression of impolite beliefscomposed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy.(10) conversational implicature: the use of conversational m

32、axims in the Cooperative Principle to produce extra meaning during conversation.2. Deictic expressions: I, now, you, that, here, tomorrow.3. Anaphoric expressions: she, him, it.4. He bought the beer.(2) You have a watch.(3) We bought a car.5. Direct acts: (1)/(5); Indirect acts: (2)/(3)/(4)6. (a) Th

33、e Maxim of Quality: (1) Do not say what you believe to be false; (2) Do not say thatfor which you lack adequate evidence.(b) The Maxim of Quantity: (1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange); (2) Do not make your contribution more informative t

34、han is required.(c) The Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.(d) The Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous (1) Avoid obscurity of expression; (2) Avoid ambiguity; (3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity); (4) Be orderly.7. The speaker is particularly careful about the maxim of Agreement in PP. The response be

35、gins with well rather thiarorder to mrioiimize disagreement between the speaker and hearer.8. It is an indirect speech act. Carol invites Lara to a party, but Lara wants to decline the invitation. To be po lite, she doesn choose a direct refusal, instead she saysI ve got an exam tomorrow as a reason

36、able excuse to decline the invitation. In this way, she minimizes the expression of impolite beliefs, thus the utterance conforms to PP(1) discourse: a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language pro-duced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of langua

37、ge such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.(2) discourse analysis: the study of how sentences in written and spoken language form larger meaning units such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.(3) given information: the information that the addresser believes is known tothe addressee

38、.(4) new information: the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.(5) topic: the main center of attention in a sentence.(6) cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different se

39、ntences or different parts of a sentence. coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.(8) discourse marker: the technical term for all the items that are used to help construct discourse, such as signifying the beginning or ending of

40、 a paragraph or a turn in conversation. They are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically de tachable from a sentence, such as well, I mean, now, then, ?rst, second, ?nally.(9) adjacency pair: a set of two consecutive, ordered turns thatadjac encytogether” in apair

41、: a set of two consecutive, ordered turns thatac cepoaogether” in acriticism/denial.(10) preference structure: in the conversations there can be several second parts related to one ?rst part, but they are not of equal status. The structural likelihood is called preference, and this likely structure

42、is the preference structure that divides second parts into preferred and dispreferred. The former is the structurally expected and the latter unexpected. In answering the question “Have you got a light? , the reply “Here you are “ is preferred and“ Sorry, no, I don t smoke “ is dispreferred.(11 pres

43、equence: the opening sequences that are used to set up some special potential actions, such as greetings before formal conversations. What are you doing tonight? ” can be ias a presequence if it is follo wed by “If nothing special, come over and have dinner with us please.”(12) critical discourse an

44、alysis: the analysis of language use directed at, and committed to, discovering the concealed ideological bias, injustice, inequality in the power relations among speakers and hearers.2. In the study of discourse, cohesion refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different

45、parts of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or different parts of a sentence. It concerns the question of how sentences are explicitly linked together in a discourse by different kinds of overt devices. Such cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipses, co

46、njunction and lexical cohesion.5. It is not a coherent discourse. Although it has connection words such as a Ford a car and black - Black, which look like cohesive devices, they refer to entirely different things. There is a total lack of internal relation among the sentences. A text canoh stupeoncy

47、ibasedconnections between the words to pursue coherence; there must be some relationship that links the meanings of the sentences in a text, too. This text is not in line with our real experience of the way the world is. Thus, we can e sense of ittdmektly unless we are laborious to create meaningful

48、 connections which are not actually expressed by the words and sentences. So it s not a coherent discourse.6. Coherence is the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text. This extract is coherent. All the sentences (questions in fact) are organize

49、d around the topic a interview th enare arranged from the general to the more speci?c in a logical order so that the text is easy to follow. sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is, how social factors in?uence the structure and use of language.(2) standa

50、rd language: the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.(3) dialect: a language variety characteristic of a particular social group; dialectscan be characteristic of

51、regional, social, temporal, occupational or gender groups.(4) register: a language variety associated with a particular situation of use, e.g. baby talk and legal language.(5) pidgin: a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone, but islearned in contact situations.(6) creole: a lan

52、guage that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the ?rstlanguage of a speech community through its being learned by children. language planning: planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or of?cial language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language,

53、 spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.(8) diglossia: a situation when two distinct varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions.(9) bilingualism: the use of at least two languages either by an individua

54、l or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.(10) code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse.(11) taboo: a word or expression that is prohibited by the polite society from general use.

55、(12) euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e. g.powderroom for toilet .2. Idiolects are varieties of a language used by individual speakers, with peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.3. A president who did

56、not have an accent may refer to a president who speaks the standard language. The standard language is a particular variety of a language that is of?cially given a status higher than any other, and therefore a domi nant or prestigious variety. The standard language is usually based on the speech and

57、 writing of educated native speakers of the language and is generally used in government documents, education, broadcasting and printing. A good president is expected to speak the prestigious variety of his language.4. Language planning is usually done by a government or government agency which conc

58、erns the choice of national or of?cial language(s), ways ofspreading the use of the language(s), spell reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems. In order to carry it out effectively, the of?cial attemptmay concentrate on either the status of a language with regard to some other language or variety or its internal condition with a view to changing it. Language planning usually involves two aspects: status planning and corpus planning. Status planning changes the function ofa language or a variety of a language