語(yǔ)言學(xué)知識(shí)點(diǎn)匯總

1、語(yǔ)言學(xué)知識(shí)點(diǎn)匯總Chapter1Invitationstolinguistics一、LanguageThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.DesignfeaturesoflanguageThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyani

2、malsystemofcommunication.GArbitrarinessItsacorefeatureoflanguage,whichmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.ThisfeaturewasfirstdiscussedbySaussure.Differentlevelsofarbitrariness:1)Soundofamorphemeanditsmeaning2)atthesyntacticallevel3)arbitrarinessandconventionG2DualityDualityre

3、ferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganizations.G3CreativityCreativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcan

4、beappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.。DisplacementDisplacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.

5、CulturaltransmissionLanguageisnotbiologicallytransmitted.Instead,itisculturallytransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughteachingandlearning.GInterchageabilityInterchageabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.TheoriginoflanguageG1ThenatureresponsetheoryPutforwardbyGer

6、manscholarM.Muller(1813-1900),thenaturalresponsetheorypostulatesthatlanguagebeganwithvocalexpressionsbeingassignedtoobjectsfoundintheenvironment.G2Thesing-songtheoryItholdsthatlanguagedevelopsfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise.Thepooh-poohtheoryThetheorytraceslanguagebacktointerjectionswhichexpressest

7、hespeakersemotions.Q4Theyo-he-hotheoryItexplainsthatlanguageoriginatedfromthecriesutteredduringstrainofwork.Q5Ta-TatheoryItbelievesthatbodymovementprecededlanguage.Languagebeganasanunconsciousvocalimitationofthesemovements.Q6Thebow-wowtheoryItholdsthatlanguageoriginatedfrompeoplesimitationsofanimalc

8、riesandothersoundsheardinnature.FunctionsofLanguageQakobsonsview(sixfunctions)注意P10的表Referential(toconveymessageandinformation)Poetic(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake)Emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions)Conative(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties)Phatic(toestablishco

9、mmunionwithothers)Metalingual(toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings)這六種功能是根據(jù)他定義的thesixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent.Namely,speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact(LinguisticsandPoetics)0allidaysview(threemetafunctionsoflanguage)Ideationalfunction:toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentth

10、atisunknowntothehearer.Interpersonalfunction:embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships.Textualfunction:referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakelivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.03Bas

11、icfunctions(七個(gè))InformativeTheinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.InterpersonalfunctionInterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.3)PerformativefunctionTheperformativefunctionoflanguageis

12、primarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons.(Suchasinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies)Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.Thiskindoflanguageisusuallyquitefo

13、rmalandevenritualized.EmotivefunctionTheemotivefunctionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Thisfunctionisalsodiscussedunderthetermexpressivefunction.(Theexpressivefunctioncanoftenbeentirelypersonalandt

14、otallywithoutanyimplicationofcommunicationtoothers.)PhaticCommunion-maintaininterpersonalrelationsPhaticcommunionoriginatesfromMalinowskisstudyofthefunctionsoflanguageperformedbyTrobriandIslanders.Itmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,et

15、c.tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.6)RecreationalfunctionRecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingitsuchasababysbabblingorachanterschanting.7)MetalingualfunctionMetalingualfunctionmeanswecanuselanguagetotalkaboutlanguage.DefinitionLinguist

16、icsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Thefourprinciplesthatmakelinguisticsascienceareexhaustiveness,consistency,economyandobjectivity.BranchesofMicrolinguistics（六個(gè)分支）GPhoneticsPhoneticsstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductiono

17、fspeech,thatis,howspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech.G2PhonologyPhonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.G3MorphologyMorphologystudiestheminimalun

18、itsofmeaning-morphemesandword-formationprocesses.Itisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.G4SyntaxSyntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.SemanticsSemanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.Itisnotonlyconc

19、ernedwithmeaningsofwordsaslexicalitems,butalsowithlevelsoflanguagebelowthewordandaboveit.GPragmaticsItisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguagecaninfluenceinterpretation.Brancheso

20、fMacrolinguisticsMacrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguisticswhichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.G1PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.(It

21、studieslanguagedevelopmentinthechild,suchasthetheoriesoflanguageacquisition,biologicalfoundationsoflanguage,andtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcognition.Thereisalsothepsycholinguisticstudyoggrammar.Thepsycholinguisticconstraintsontheformofgrammararestudied.)Q2SociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsisanumb

22、rellatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.Q3AnthropologicallinguisticsItistheinvestigationthatusesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtohumanculturalpatternsandbeliefs.

23、QComputationallinguisticsComputationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.MajordistinctionsinlinguisticsQ1DescriptiveVS.PrescriptiveDescriptivetosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordth

24、erulestowhichthemembersofalanguagecommunityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.(PeopledonssayX)Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.(DontsayX.)Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsou

25、ghttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.0SynchronicVS.DiachronicAsynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarilypresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussuresdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.ThestructureofShakespearesEnglishVS.thechangesEnglishhasundergone.(

26、現(xiàn)代更喜前者)Q3LangueandParole(Saussure區(qū)別二者)Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langue:relativestableandsystematic;notspokenbyanindividual.Parole:subjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;anaturallyoccurringevent.QCompetenceand

27、performance(Chomsky更喜前者)Competence:alanguageusersunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules;enablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.(stable)Performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations;ofteninfluencedbypsychologicaland

28、socialfactors.Soaspeakersperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.03和04相似但又有所不同。Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterd

29、ealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.Eticvs.EmicEticreferstothelinguisticunitscontaining-etic,forinstance,phonetic,morphetic,whichareusedtodescribelinguisticfactsindetailwithoutdistinctivefeatures,andarefirstusedtodescribesounds.Emicreferstothelinguisticunitscontaining-emic,forinst

30、ance,phonemic,morphemic,whichareusedtodescribeabstractlinguisticruleswithdistinctivefeaturesandarefirstusedtodescribephonemes.Chapter2PhoneticsandPhonology一、PhoneticsMajorbranchesofPhonetics(accordingtotheprocessofspeechproductionandperception)GArticulatoryphoneticsstudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds

31、QAcousticphoneticsstudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsG3Auditoryphonetics(perceptual)perceptionofspeechsoundsArticulatoryphoneticsGSpeechorgansSpeechorgans,alsoknownasvocalorgans,arethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:t

32、heinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.G2ConsonantsDefinition:Aconsonantisproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.MannersofarticulationDefinition:Waysinwhicharticulationofconsonantscanbea

33、ccomplished(a)thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod(b)theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably(c)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.Stop/plosive:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbystoppingtheairstreamfromthelungsandthensuddenlyreleasingit.p,b,t,d,k,gNa

34、sal:Iftheairisstoppedintheoralcavitybutthesoftpalateisdownsothatitcangooutthroughthenasalcavity,thesoundproducedisanasalstop.m,n,nFricative:Fricativeisproducedwhenthereiscloseapproximationoftwoarticulatorssothattheairstreamispartiallyobstructedandturbulentairflowisproduced.f,v,s,z,hApproximantw,jLat

35、erallThrillrAffricative:Affricativeinvolvemorethanoneofthesemannersofarticulationinthattheyconsistofastopfollowedimmediatelyafterwardsbyafricativeatthesameplaceofarticulation.ts,dz,tr,drPlaceofarticulationDefinition:Placeofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Bilabials雙唇音：p,b,mLabiodent

36、als唇齒音：f,vdental齒音口Alveolar齒齦音t,d,n,s,z,lPostalveolar齒齦后音,Palatal硬腭音jvelar軟腭音k,g,glottal聲門(mén)音hForalllanguage:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,postalveolar,retroflex,palatal,velar,uvlar（小舌）pharygngeal（咽音）glottal03VowelsDefinition:Vowelsaresoundsproducedwithoutobstruction,sonoturbulenceoratotalstopp

37、ingoftheaircanbeperceived.ThecriteriaofvoweldescriptionTheheightofthetongueraisinghigh,mid,lowThepositionofthehighestpartofthetonguefront,central,backThelengthortensenessofthevowellong,shortortense,laxTheshapeofthelipsrounded,unroundedCardinalvowelsCardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydef

38、ined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguage.AdistinctionbetweenvowelsPurevowels/Monophthongvowels:Thequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulator.Vowelsglides:Thereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,t

39、heglidesarecalleddiphthongs,suchaseiaiauoiAdoublemovementproducestriphthongs,suchasaiau4CoarticulationDefinition:Itreferstotheprocessofsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulatorswhensoundsshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Itincludesanticipatorycoarticulationandpreservationcoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmo

40、relikethefollowingsound,asinlamb,itisknownasanti-preservativecoarticulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation.Nasalization:Changeorprocessbywhichvowelsorconsonantsbecomenasal.Diacritics:Anymarkinwritingadditionaltoaletterorotherbasicelements.5Phonetictran

41、scriptionBroadtranscription:Theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription.Narrowtranscription:Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetail.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateonlythesesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechso

42、unds,includingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.Phoneticvs.PhonologyPhoneticsstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatis,howspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech.Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthest

43、ructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Thereisafairdegreeofoverlapinwhatconcernsthetwosubjects,sosometimesitishardtodrawtheboundarybetweenthem.Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectiono

44、fthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Thatistosay,phonologyisconcernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.二、PhonologyPhonologyTheoryGMinimalpairsMinimalpairsare

45、twowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.tieanddieG2Phone,phonemeandallophonesPhone:Itisabasicunitofphoneticstudy,anditisaminimalsoundsegmentthathumanspeechorganscanproduce.Phoneme:Itisabasicunitofphonologicalstudy,anditisanabstractcollectio

46、nofphoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeaning.Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionareplacedbetweenslantlines(/)./t/or/d/AllophonesThedifferentrealizationofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.pG3ComplementarydistributionWhentwoormorethantwoallophonesofthesame

47、phonemedonotdistinguishmeaningandneveroccurinthesamecontext,thentheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution./p/QFreevariationIftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast,thatis,thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesamew

48、ord,thenthetwosoundsareinfreevariation.Q5PhonemiccontrastanddistinctivefeaturesPhonemiccontrast:Iftwophonemesinaminimalpairoccurinthesameplaceandcandistinguishmeaning,thesetwophonemesaresaidtobeinphonemiccontrast.Distinctivefeatures:TheideaofdistinctivefeatureswasfirstdevelopedbyRomanJacobsoninthe19

49、40sasameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds.Someofthemajordistinctionsincludeconsonantal,sonorant,nasalandvoiced.Theseareknownasbinaryfeatureswhichhavetwovaluesdenotedby+and-PhonologicalprocessAnyphonologicalprocessmusthavethreeaspectstoi

50、t:asetofsoundstoundergotheprocessasetofsoundsproducedbytheprocessasetofsituationinwhichtheprocessapplies2)PhonulogicqlProcessAnyphnodicalprucssshavethnT加i.ri)的tnFsoundstoundprhtheprocess;aSCIofsoundspntduwedbyIhepntcsss；astitofjiitudtioninwhichLheprocessapjJied.TheindcEiutvarticlea/annileinEnglish0-

51、n/sV(EpentlieaisTHenominalpluralruleinEngUh/z/-*a/-voiced+C.(出小說(shuō)迦)0打/+MbilantTheunaspirttonruleinEngJhh-cant-voiffld-+-fiprRaci/S+spread|inotherplsJliisruleappliesto/p,ltkAThepasttenseruleinEnglish,Coronal/+td/Ytml-nasal.icet/-voicedJdinotherplacesrhe”川eh匚cont,-nasal.anLHufiirienttossparaLetandt.fru

52、motherconi?onajiLi.5ThedsewhereconditionIherriorvperificruleappliesfinst.）音系過(guò)程任何音系過(guò)程必定制括三個(gè)因素.由一套經(jīng)歷音系過(guò)程的語(yǔ)音；b）一套音系過(guò)程產(chǎn)出的語(yǔ)音；C）一套音系過(guò)程得以使用的條件口I英語(yǔ)中不定強(qiáng)詞a/on的趣則0T他/a元音（*）2英語(yǔ)中名詞復(fù)數(shù)的規(guī)則/一帶聲,C（清例t）+國(guó)擦削國(guó)3英語(yǔ)送不送氣的規(guī)則|蠹T展喉，f+展喉其他位置這一規(guī)則適用于/p,t,k/a4英語(yǔ)中過(guò)去式的規(guī)則舌冠./d/id/，連續(xù)L-鼻音；-帶聲d其他位置特征舌冠，連續(xù)鼻音足以總和切從其他輔音中分離出來(lái)。剩余位置條件較為特殊的規(guī)則

53、應(yīng)用在先廿.PhonologicalrulesGSequentialrules:Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.E.g.inEnglish,k,b,I,lmightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.G2Assimilationrule:Therulethatassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophon

54、essimilariscalledassimilationrule.Itincludesprogressiveassimilationandregressiveassimilation.Theformerreferstotheprocessinwhichafollowingsoundisinfluencedbyaprecedingsound,makingthetwosoundssimilar;regressiveassimilationreferstotheprocess,inwhichaQDeletionprecedingsoundisinfluencedbyafollowingsound,

55、makingthesoundssimilar.rule:Thephonologicalrule,whichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,iscalleddeletionrule.E.g.design4.SuprasegmentalfeaturesDefinition:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalf

56、eaturesaresyllables,stress,toneandintonation.Q1Syllables:Asyllablecanbedividedintotwoparts,therhyme(orrime)andtheonset.Asthevowelwithintherhymeisthenucleus,theconsonantsafteritwillbetermedthecoda.Theprinciplewhichstatesthatwhenthereischoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant.Itisputintotheonsetratherthanthec

57、oda.Q2Stress:Itreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Q3Intonation:Theoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeaning,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.Q4Tone:asetoffall-ris

58、epatternsaffectingthemeaningsofindividualwords.Chapter3Morphology、MorphologyThesystematicstudyofmorphemeisabranchoflinguisticscalledmorphology,whichinvestigatestheinternalstructuresandrulesofmorphemesbywhichwordsareformed.1.ResearchingFieldGInfluentialmorphologyInflection:itisthemanifestationofgramm

59、aticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixessuchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.G2Derivationalmorphology(wordformation)Definition:Derivationalmorphologyreferstotheprocessofwordvariationsignalinglexicalrelation

60、ships.Itcanbefurthersub-classifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andderivationaltype(derivation).CompoundDefinition:Compoundreferstothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorphemes,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.Compoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentriccompound