英語語言學(xué)知識(shí)

1、.Chapter 1 Introduction語言學(xué)的定義：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.問題：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of languageIt is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguisti

2、c data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but:to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.to check the hypotheses thus formed repe

3、atedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通語言學(xué))問題: What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them studyphonetics語音學(xué)the study of soundsphonology音位學(xué)study how sounds are put together and use

4、d to convey meaningmorphology形態(tài)學(xué)study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and bined to form words.syntax句法學(xué)the study of rules of forming sentencessemantics語義學(xué)the study of meaningpragmatics語用學(xué) the context of language useSociolinguistics社會(huì)語言學(xué)：The studies of all these social aspects of l

5、anguage and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics語言心理學(xué)：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics應(yīng)用語言學(xué)：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign an

6、d second languages. Some important distinctions in linguistics:prescriptive規(guī)定性/descriptive描寫性synchronic共時(shí)/diachronic歷時(shí)speech口語/writing書面語langue語言/parole言語the Swiss linguist F. de SaussureCourse in General Linguisticspetence語言能力/performance語言應(yīng)用the American linguist N. Chomskytraditional grammar 傳統(tǒng)語法/

7、modern linguistics現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)問題：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammarlinguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin

8、-based framework.問題：Is modernlinguisticsmainly synchronic or diachronic Why In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考慮歷史演進(jìn)的, 限于一時(shí)的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求現(xiàn)象變化的, 歷時(shí)的) one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods

9、 are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.問題：For what reasons does

10、 modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writingFrom the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in todays world there are still many languages

11、 that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday munication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised record of speech. And linguists data f

12、or investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.語言的定義：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication.Design features of language7個(gè)識(shí)別特征arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic levelproductivity 能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性Secondary units底層結(jié)構(gòu) sound

13、sduality 雙層性Primary units 上層結(jié)構(gòu) units of meaningdisplacement 不受時(shí)空限制性handle generalization and abstractioncultural transmission 文化傳遞性interchangeability 互換性convention 約定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson6種首要因素，結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)家speaker a

14、ddresseremotive 感情功能addresseeconative 意動(dòng)功能contextreferential所指功能messagepoetic 詩學(xué)功能contactphatic munion交感功能codemetalinguistic 元語言功能Other functions:phatic function 問候功能informative f. 信息功能interrogative f. 詢問功能expressive f. 表達(dá)功能evocative f. 感染功能directive f. 指令功能performative f. 行使權(quán)力功能M.A.K. Hallidayideat

15、ionalinterpersonalindicate/establish/maintain/social relationshipstextual問題：How is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys distinction between petence and performanceThe distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language

16、 people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between petence and performance proposed by the Ameri

17、can linguists Chomsky, petence is a deal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out

18、one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make

19、 them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speakers petence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. 問題：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it

20、is essentially different from animal munication systemarbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic levelproductivity 能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性Secondary units底層結(jié)構(gòu) soundsduality 雙層性Primary units 上層結(jié)構(gòu) units of meaningdisplacement 不受時(shí)空限制性handle generalization and abstractioncultural transmission 文化傳遞性interchangeability 互換性conventi

21、on 約定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: 語音學(xué)the study of the phonic medium of languagelook at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.study the sounds from the speakers point of viewarticulatory phonetics發(fā)音語音學(xué)look at the sounds from the hearers point of viewauditory phonetics聽覺語音學(xué)study t

22、he way sounds travel by looking at the sound wavesacoustic phonetics聲學(xué)語音學(xué)study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:three important areasThe pharyngeal cavitythe throatthe oral cavitythe mouth the nasal cavitythe noseThe pharyngeal cavitywindpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal c

23、ords the oral cavitytongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus) /teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet IPAdiacritics 附加符號(hào)broad transcription寬式標(biāo)音the transcription with letter-symbols onlynarrow transcription嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacriti

24、csClassification of English speech soundstwo broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonantstwo ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner of articulationIn terms of place of articulationIn terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/gl

25、idesIn terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottalbilabialLabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatalvelarglottalstopsVLptkVDbdgfricativesVLfshVDvzaffricatesVL(t)tVD(d)dnasalsVDmnliquidsVDl/rglidesVDwjClassification of English vowelscriteria :monophthongs單元音The po

26、sition of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-open vowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/laxfrontcentralbackclosei:u:iuSemi-closee:Semi-open:openaa:diphthongs 雙元音/ei / /ai /au /u

27、 /i /i / u /Phonology 音韻學(xué)，語音體系Difference of phonology and phonetics:Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic munication.Phone音素:

28、A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme音位: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone音位變體: The different phones

29、 which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast音位對(duì)立plementary distribution音位變體的互補(bǔ)分布Minimal pairs最小對(duì)立體：含音位的單詞的全部音標(biāo)Minimal set最小對(duì)立集：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis音位分析Principle: certain

30、 sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds: 描述音位關(guān)系Free variants: 音位的自由變體The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules i

31、n phonology sequential rules: 序列規(guī)那么If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the bination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p /

32、/ t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l / r / w /assimilation rule:同化規(guī)那么deletion rule：省略規(guī)那么Suprasegmental features 超音段特征超音段比音位更大的語言單位 stress 單詞，句子層面：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音節(jié)：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often c

33、onsonants)單音節(jié)詞多音節(jié)詞英語單詞都有重讀音位學(xué)中，單詞由音節(jié)構(gòu)成，音節(jié)由音位構(gòu)成。句子里讀重音的詞：Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronouns tone 詞匯層面English is not a tone languageChinese is a typical tone language: Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fallintonation 句子層面English has four basic types

34、of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone問題：What are the two major media of munication Of the two, which one is primary and whySpeech and writing Speech Because from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system o

35、f any language is always “invented by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in todays world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday munication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spo

36、ken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised record of speech. And linguists data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.問題：What is voicing and how is it causedVibration of the voca

37、l cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 詞法形態(tài)學(xué)1 定義和知識(shí)點(diǎn)：the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structurethe branch of linguistics that studies the internal struct

38、ure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.four facets:Sounds (phonolog

39、y)Constructions (syntax)Meanings (semantics)Forms of words2 詞性分類open class words: 名、動(dòng)、形、副 are the content words of a language closed class words: 連、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few new words are added3 詞素有關(guān) Morpheme:詞素構(gòu)成單詞的最小意義單位，包括聲音和意義，abstract units(任意性)Morph: 形素 the sound of a morpheme 聲音All

40、omorphs: 語素變體The variant forms of a morpheme4 分類morphemes Free morpheme(自由詞素): A morpheme which can be a word by itself bound morpheme(粘著詞素)：A morpheme that must be attached to another one lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes(派生詞素,包括前后綴): They are used to derive new words, also known as derivat

41、ional morphemes inflectional morphemes(屈折詞素)：詞類不發(fā)生變化5 單詞定義：WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are binations of words according to syntacti

42、c rules. A word is a lexeme(詞位). A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 單詞結(jié)構(gòu)：StructureRoot: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major ponent of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which

43、 both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added.Base: 詞基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and dont belong to a lexical category.7 單詞合成：Word formationmorphological rulesproductive morphological

44、 rulesderivationpounds 幾點(diǎn)注意：When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the pound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. 不總是這樣The meaning of a pound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.8 單詞合成過程：poundi

45、ngaffixation or derivationBlends 混合詞Abbreviation 縮略語shortening acronyms 按音節(jié)拼讀首字母的單詞Initials 按字母拼讀的單詞Clippings 縮寫詞backformation 逆構(gòu)詞法9 要點(diǎn)Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some

46、free ones like in, and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally known as functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定義It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2 四大派別traditional syntax 傳統(tǒng)學(xué)派structural syntax 結(jié)構(gòu)主義學(xué)派索緒爾transformational

47、syntax 生成學(xué)派喬姆斯基本書重點(diǎn)學(xué)習(xí)functional syntax 功能學(xué)派哈里德3 范疇Categories Noun (N)Verb (V)Major lexical categoriesAdjective (A)Preposition (P)Word-level categoriesDeterminer (Det) 限定詞/成分Degree words (Deg) 程度詞Minor lexical categories Qualifier (Qual) 修飾語Auxiliary (Aux) 助詞Conjunction (Con) 連詞Syntactic categories 句

48、法范疇的定義：The fact that words in all human languages can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.Major lexical categories (主要詞匯范疇) play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often

49、 assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.Minor lexical categories (次要詞匯范疇) Meaning 意義Three criteria to determine a words category inflection 屈折變化Distribution 分布It is misleading to assume that a words category can be told straightforward from its meaning:nouns do not concretely reveal

50、their entities.some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories. Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.The phrase is built around the word category.The word categor

51、y determines the category of phrase.4 要點(diǎn)生成學(xué)派認(rèn)為句子由短語構(gòu)成。短語單詞詞素音節(jié) 短語層面任何短語都有2個(gè)層面 單詞層面5 the most monly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phraseAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:head/termed head 中心

52、語/中心成分:The word around which a phrase is formedspecifiers 標(biāo)志語/標(biāo)志成分：The words on the left side of the heads plements 補(bǔ)語/補(bǔ)足語/補(bǔ)足成分：The words on the right side of the heads7 phrase structure rule 短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)那么定義：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a

53、 phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP(Det) N (PP) VP(Qual) V (NP) AP(Deg) A (PP) PP(Deg) P (NP) XP rule公式一：XP (specifier) X (plement)X Theory X 標(biāo)桿理論X : The intermediate level formed by the head and the plement between word level and phrase level.X Theory: (specifier) X (word) X=X (p

54、lement)Coordination rule (并列規(guī)那么)Coordinate structures (并列結(jié)構(gòu))Coordination (并列，并列關(guān)系)Four important properties of coordination：there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.coordinat

55、ed categories must be of the same type.the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.公式二：XX * Con X 其中“*代表無限的意思8 Phrase elementsSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.semantically, they help make more precise the meani

56、ng of the head.syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases.plements are themselves phrase and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.plements are atta

57、ched to the right of the head in English.Subcategorization (次范疇化)：中心成分決定補(bǔ)充成分這種現(xiàn)象。中心成分決定補(bǔ)充成分時(shí)，決定著是否需要補(bǔ)充成分，需要什么樣的補(bǔ)充成分，以及補(bǔ)充成分的位置問題。The XP Rule (revised)公式三：XP(specifier) X (plement*)plementizers (Cs): 補(bǔ)語化成分Words which introduce the sentence plement plement clause: 補(bǔ)語從句The sentence introduced by the ple

58、mentizerplement phrase(CP):補(bǔ)語短語Matrix clause 主句Modifiers 修飾成分，修飾語The Expanded XP rule:公式四：XP(Spec) (Mod) X (plement*) (Mod)9 sentencesThe S rule: SNP VP4種短語1種句子為屈折短語10 transformations 轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)那么Yes-no questionSyntactic movement wh-questionPassive voice Transformation/Inversion倒置定義: a special type of rule

59、 that can move an element from one position to another. Inversion倒置：Move Infl to the left of the subject NPAll Ss occur within larger CPs, whether they are embedded or not.Inversion (revised):Move Infl to CIf we assume that there can be only one element in each position in a tree structure, plementi

60、zers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusive. Trace: 用“e表示Head movement 中心語移位：The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in anotherInversion一般疑問句+顯性助詞Do insertion:Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position11 Two levels of syntactic structureDeep struct