經(jīng)濟(jì)金融企業(yè)管理外文翻譯外文文獻(xiàn)英文文獻(xiàn)

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上專心-專注-專業(yè)專心-專注-專業(yè)精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上專心-專注-專業(yè)附錄 【原文】 Upgrading in Global Value Chains enterprises ( SMEs) may participate in global markets in a way that provides for productivity, wages, and profits. The key difference between the high and the low road to competitiveness is often

2、explained by the different capabilities of firms to upgrade. In this paper, upgrading refers to the capacity of a firm to innovate to Nevertheless, the literature on clusters, mainly focused on the local sources of competitiveness coming from intracluster vertical and horizontal relationships 1995),

3、 has often neglected the increasing importance of external link ages. Due to recent changes in production often operate across many different countries. The literature on global value chains Indeed, extensive evidence on Latin America reveals that both the local and the global dimensions matter, and

4、 firms often participate in clusters as well as in value remarkable drawbacks, as, for instance, upgrading may be limited in some forms of the sectoral dimension in the analysis of industrial organization and dynamism. On industrial economics: the firm and the sector. On the other hand, according to

5、 the value chain literature, firms from different sectors may all participate in the same their participation in the global economy, especially as the industrial sector plays a The contribution this paper makes is by taking into account all of these latter is crucially shaped by three characteristic

6、s: (i) the collective efficiency of the cluster in which SMEs operate, (ii) the pattern of governance of the value chain in The structure of the paper is the following: in Section 2, we briefly review the concepts of clustering and value chains, and focus on their overlaps and introduces a categoriz

7、ation of groups of sectors, based on the notions underlying the clusters, and shows that the sectoral dimension matters to explain why clustering and developed world, particularly in Italy, has stimulated new attention to the potential offered by this form of industrial organization for firms of dev

8、eloping countries. The capability of clustered firms to be economically viable and grow has attracted a great In developing countries, the sectoral and geographical concentration of SMEs is cases with historically strong roots, does not necessarily imply that these clusters share all the stylized fa

9、cts which identify the Marshall type of district, as firstly occur): division and specialization of labor, the emergence of a wide network of To capture the positive impacts of these factors on the competitiveness of firms economies (EE) are of importance in explaining the competitiveness of industr

10、ial The combination of both incidental external economies and the effects of active role of intracluster vertical and horizontal relationships generating collective information technologies, suggest that more attention needs to be paid to external From an analytical point of view, the value chain pe

11、rspective is useful because activities involved in the supply of goods and services, including distribution and Coordination may occur through arms-length market relations or non market relationships. In the latter case, following Humphrey and Schmitz chain; (b) quasi-hierarchy involving relationshi

12、ps between legally independent firms Also stressed is the role played by GVC leaders, particularly by the buyers, in for local SMEs, the role played by the leaders of GVCs in fostering and supporting the SMEs upgrading process is less clear. Gereffi (1999), mainly focusing on East prospects of upgra

13、ding with respect to the pattern of value chain governance. They country producers. In addition, a more dynamic approach suggests that chain 2002b): (a) power relationships may evolve when existing producers, or their spin In sum, both modes of organizing production, that is, the cluster and the val

14、ue chain, offer interesting opportunities for the upgrading and modernization of local firms, and are not mutually exclusive alternatives. However, in order to assess their potential contribution to local SMEs innovation and upgrading, we need to understand their organization of inter firm linkages

15、and their internal governance. Furthermore, as we explain in the following section, the nature of their dominant or moving in to more skilled activitieshas often been used in studies on Following this approach, upgrading is decisively related to innovation. Here we various ways, such as, for example

16、, by entering higher unit value market niches or Product upgrading is moving into more sophisticated product lines in terms of design or marketing or abandoning existing low-value added functions to focus on chain implies going up on the value ladder, moving away from activities in which in relative

17、 productivity which determine international trade flows, success in firmlevel upgrading enables the dynamic acquisition of competitiveness in new market sum, the logic goes from innovation, to upgrading, to the acquisition of firm-level In this paper, we argue that the concept of competitive advanta

18、ge increasingly determining different patterns of inter industry specialization. Within such a theoretical approach, with perfectly competitive markets, firms need to target only production efficiency. In fact, this is not enough, and competitive advantage is the of different degrees of (dynamic) ex

19、ternalities in different subsect or sand stages of prevailing productive specialization (as advocated by the theory of CA). Moreover, Thus, for example, in traditional manufacturing, the stages of design, product innovation, marketing, and distribution may all foster competitiveness increases in fra

20、gility and vulnerability of an enterprises productive specialization. Competition For all these reasons, the concept of production efficiency is encompassed within the broader concept of competitiveness, and the efforts to upgrade functionally and rents and externalities emerging in specific stages

21、of the value chain, market niches, An additional element that crucially affects the upgrading prospects of firms and to increase value added, then all the factors influencing innovation acquire a new relevance. This dimension is often overlooked in studies on clusters, perhaps due to discussed in th

22、e context of evolutionary economics by Nelson and Winter(1982). It which can be freely used by its owners, but that can not be easily expressed and organization to be active in the earlier stages of its development, and a close and (b) Sectoral specificities in upgrading and innovation: a classifica

23、tion for Latin The impact of collective efficiency and patterns of governance on the capacity of SMEs to upgrade may differ across sectors. This claim is based upon the most traditional manufacturing), while in other sectors, technology users, organizations such as universities or the firms themselv

24、es (as, for example, with Consistently with this approach, the properties of firm knowledge bases across externalities and cooperation among local actors (e.g., firms, research centers, and sources of knowledge such as transnational corporations(TNCs, or research Furthermore, the differences across

25、sectoral groups raise questions on the role of Moreover, in traditional manufacturing industries, characterized by a low degree of very low technological capabilities. Therefore, tight supervision and direct support local suppliers and want to reduce the risk of non compliance(Humphrey & Schmitz, 20

26、02b). The situation is at the opposite extreme in the case of complex products, sectoral classification, adapting existing taxonomies to the Latin American case. 11 house R&D activities are very low both in domestic and foreign firms (Archibugi& liberalization(Cimoli & Katz, 2002), and university-in

27、dustry linkages appear to be Latin America has deepened its productive specialization in resource based sectors reflecting its rich endowment of natural resources, relatively more than human and routinized versus large R&D laboratories), tacitness or codified nature of knowledge, scale and relevance

28、 of R&D activity, and appropriability of SMEs potential for upgrading within clusters and value chains. Traditional shaping the design of final products and hence the specificities of the process of applied science, which, due to low appropriability conditions, is most often input suppliers (i.e., c

29、hemicals, machinery, etc.) which achieve economies of scale a leading firm characterized by high design and technological capabilities. To our aims, the relationships of local suppliers with these anchors may be crucial to 1993), where the process of technical change is realized within an architectu

30、ral set Among the Specialized Suppliers, we only consider software, which is typically of the sector, which moderates the importance of proximity to final markets and extends the scope for a deeper international division of labor. Moreover, the same time, the proximity of the market and of clients m

31、ay crucially improve the development of design capabilities and thereby foster product/process up grading. affect the process of upgrading of clusters in value chains. This paper also aims at analyzing with original empirical evidence whetherand howthe sectoral This study is based on the collection

32、of original data from 12 clusters in Latin America that have not hitherto been investigated, and on an extensive review of Desk and field studies were undertaken following the same methodology, which clustering; 17 (2) upgrading: the clusters selected have experienced some degree of A total of 40 ca

33、se studies were selected forth is analysis. 18 The list of cases, The analysis consists of a systematic attempt to quantify on Likert scales, for each of the clusters investigated, the dimensions to be analyzed: the degree of collective efficiency and levels of upgrading. Cluster studies have also b

34、een categorized To quantify the degree of collective efficiency, a careful evaluation of CE main componentsexternal economies and joint actionhas been carried out. Hence, a with referenceto product, process, functional, and inter sectoral upgrading: a value The values were determined during either t

35、he original field studies, or, in the cases reviewed from the context and from the specific wording of papers. Finally, we Whenever the evidence was derived from other published sources, we carefully tried to minimize the occurrence of bias and misinterpretations complementing and reliable data: eve

36、n when updated firm-level statistics are available, which seldom happens in developing countries, they are usually available at the national or local assessments. Given its qualitative content, the aim of this study is not to identify causal relationships but rather to explore the hypotheses present

37、ed above with rich, of additional complementary issues are addressed in a longer study, where summarized descriptions of the case studies undertaken in the project are included 【譯文】 全球價值鏈下產(chǎn)業(yè)升級 企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營活動，本質(zhì)上是價值創(chuàng)造的動態(tài)過程。每個企業(yè)都是在設(shè)計 、 生產(chǎn)、銷售、發(fā)送和輔助其產(chǎn)品的過程中進(jìn)行種種活動的一個集合體，而所有這 些活動可以用一個價值鏈(value chain)來表明 。 隨著國際外

38、包業(yè)務(wù)日益增多，全球價值鏈(global value chain，GVC)的概 念應(yīng)運(yùn)而生。全球價值鏈?zhǔn)侵溉蛐钥缙髽I(yè)網(wǎng)絡(luò)組織在原料采集和運(yùn)輸、產(chǎn)品的 生產(chǎn)和分銷、直至最終消費和回收處理的過程中進(jìn)行的價值創(chuàng)造活動。杰瑞菲 (Gary Gereffi)通過研究不同環(huán)節(jié)之間相互聯(lián)系的分布在世界各國的生產(chǎn)體系 后發(fā)現(xiàn)，全球價值鏈往往由一個或幾個領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者支配、協(xié)調(diào)；領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者通常占據(jù)價值 鏈的戰(zhàn)略環(huán)節(jié)，他決定著價值鏈的基本特征。 根據(jù)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者的角色，全球價值鏈可以分為生產(chǎn)者驅(qū)動型價值鏈(producer-driven value chain)和購買者驅(qū)動型價值鏈(buyer-driven value chai

39、n)。生 產(chǎn)者驅(qū)動型價值鏈?zhǔn)侵冈谏a(chǎn)進(jìn)入壁壘高的行業(yè)，價值鏈由處在生產(chǎn)環(huán)節(jié)上的大 制造商控制。全球價值鏈的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)公司通常是國際巨頭，他們后向控制原材料和配 件供應(yīng)商，前向與分銷零售商密切聯(lián)系。這種價值鏈在汽車、飛機(jī)、計算機(jī)、半 導(dǎo)體及重型機(jī)械等資本、技術(shù)密集行業(yè)中很典型。購買者驅(qū)動型價值鏈?zhǔn)侵冈谏?產(chǎn)進(jìn)入壁壘較低的行業(yè)，價值鏈由銷售渠道擁有者和品牌擁有者控制。他們在建 立銷售網(wǎng)絡(luò)的基礎(chǔ)上，建立散布于各個國家(一般是第三世界國家)的 生 產(chǎn) 網(wǎng) 絡(luò) ， 并控制著這2個網(wǎng)絡(luò)，成為價值鏈的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者。而在第三世界的制造商，根據(jù)零售 商和經(jīng)銷商提供的產(chǎn)品規(guī)格和品牌進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)和銷售。這種以貿(mào)易帶動的價值鏈， 在

40、勞動密集型的日用消費品中很常見，如服裝、鞋、玩具、手工藝品及家用電器 等。 1 購買者驅(qū)動的服裝價值鏈 服裝價值鏈包括原料處理、產(chǎn)品設(shè)計、紡織品生產(chǎn)、成衣制造和銷售等過程 。 據(jù)測算，服裝價值鏈上的利潤分配：設(shè)計占40 ，營銷占50，生產(chǎn)占10 。 很明顯，在全球服裝價值鏈中，設(shè)計和營銷處于價值鏈的高端，而生產(chǎn)加工處于 價值鏈的低端。服裝價值鏈?zhǔn)琴徺I者驅(qū)動型的，即大型的服裝零售商、品牌營銷 商、品牌制造商是服裝價值鏈的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)廠商。他們構(gòu)建營銷網(wǎng)絡(luò)的同時，在全球配 置服裝生產(chǎn)網(wǎng)絡(luò)，并通過訂單的全球化推動生產(chǎn)的全球化。他們控制服裝價值鏈 中增值率高、利潤份額多的設(shè)計、品牌、營銷環(huán)節(jié)，而把增值率低、利

41、潤份額少 的加工環(huán)節(jié)配置在勞動力密集、工資低廉的國家和地區(qū)。例如，亞洲早先的新興 工業(yè)化國家(地區(qū))以及后來的中國內(nèi)地、越南等地。近些年來，全球服裝價值鏈 已延伸到非洲、中美洲的一些國家，但重心仍在亞洲。 發(fā)達(dá)國家在服裝加工失去比較優(yōu)勢后，無一例外地都轉(zhuǎn)向服裝價值鏈高端， 實現(xiàn)服裝產(chǎn)業(yè)的升級。例如：意大利已經(jīng)形成了紡織品、服裝服飾以及高檔時裝 的設(shè)計、加工、銷售一條龍的運(yùn)作體系，構(gòu)成了完整的產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈，并成為時尚潮流 的源頭，不乏全球頂級品牌；日本服裝企業(yè)自行開發(fā)、設(shè)計，將訂單下到勞動力 便宜的發(fā)展中國家，成品打上自己的品牌，在國內(nèi)銷售；美國 大批世界知名 品牌集團(tuán)如LizC1aiborne、Lo

42、rd&Taylor等控制了本國甚至世界市場，他們中很 多是設(shè)計和銷售公司，有自己的專賣店，或在零售集團(tuán)中有專賣柜臺，他們擁有 品牌，產(chǎn)品設(shè)計好后委托發(fā)展中國家貼牌加工，然后再由他們經(jīng)銷。 2 中國服裝業(yè)在全球價值鏈中的地位 中國服裝在世界市場占有率達(dá)17，但以貼牌生產(chǎn)(OEM)、加工貿(mào)易為主， 在國際市場上自有品牌鳳毛麟角，服裝產(chǎn)品的出口價格只相當(dāng)于法國和意大利的 14，賺取的利潤極其有限，處于全球價值鏈低端?！爸袊b產(chǎn)品的尷尬在于 ： 在品牌端你沒有話語權(quán)，在技術(shù)端你又說不上話，最后發(fā)現(xiàn)，你只能在這產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈 的前后兩端之間苦苦掙扎 掙一些血汗錢。” 國內(nèi)有一些品牌生產(chǎn)商(OBM)，如美特斯

43、邦威、森馬等，開始在國內(nèi)市場 控制服裝價值鏈，但這些品牌基本上還沒有進(jìn)入國際市場，脫離全球價值鏈。雅 戈爾、杉杉等也均以國內(nèi)中高檔男裝市場為主，基本上與全球價值鏈無關(guān)。如果 他們從事出口，目前大部分也以貼牌為主，自有品牌還難以在國際市場立足。 在全球價值鏈中，領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者居于價值鏈高端并控制著價值鏈；而居于價值鏈低 端的生產(chǎn)企業(yè)處于被動地位，對價值鏈幾乎沒有控制力。價值鏈領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者總在尋找 新的更便宜的供應(yīng)來源。我國的勞動力成本相對于美國、日本、歐盟來說有絕對 優(yōu)勢，與墨西哥相比優(yōu)勢已經(jīng)不十分明顯，與印度、緬甸和孟加拉等發(fā)展中國家 相比已沒有優(yōu)勢。隨著我國經(jīng)濟(jì)的快速發(fā)展，勞動力成本優(yōu)勢會逐漸減弱，國外

44、訂單有可能流向其他國家和地區(qū)，服裝生產(chǎn)大國的地位因此受到威脅。服裝生產(chǎn) 中心轉(zhuǎn)移最基本的原因是：領(lǐng)導(dǎo)廠商總是力圖將服裝價值鏈中勞動密集程度最高 的環(huán)節(jié)，即加工環(huán)節(jié)，配置在勞動工資水平最低的國家或地區(qū)來完成。 3 全球價值鏈下的產(chǎn)業(yè)升級 全球價值鏈下產(chǎn)業(yè)升級的途徑是逐步移向價值鏈高端。具體途徑有： 1)過程升級即內(nèi)部過程的優(yōu)化，比自己的競爭對手做得更好(如降低庫 存成本或損耗)；或者改進(jìn)價值鏈內(nèi)部的關(guān)聯(lián)(如多次而小量的及時送貨)。 2)產(chǎn)品升級即產(chǎn)品性能價格比的改進(jìn)和更靈敏地應(yīng)對市場(如比競爭對 手更快推出新產(chǎn)品)。 3)功能改進(jìn)通過改變內(nèi)部活動結(jié)構(gòu)來提升增加值。如在購買者驅(qū)動型價 值鏈中加工者

45、逐步涉足設(shè)計、創(chuàng)建品牌、構(gòu)建營銷網(wǎng)絡(luò)等。 4)鏈條升級從原有價值鏈移向新的、價值量高的相關(guān)價值鏈。比如臺灣 從生產(chǎn)半導(dǎo)體收音機(jī)依次轉(zhuǎn)向生產(chǎn)計算器、電視機(jī)、電腦監(jiān)視器、筆記本電腦 。 杰瑞菲認(rèn)為，在購買者驅(qū)動型價值鏈中，加工企業(yè)通過在價值鏈中與領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者 的互動，可以接受領(lǐng)先公司的技術(shù)、資金、知識和信息的擴(kuò)散。同時，領(lǐng)先公司 為保證產(chǎn)品差異，實現(xiàn)供貨的及時，確保產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)滿足國際市場的要求，會監(jiān) 督和協(xié)助加工企業(yè)投資于先進(jìn)設(shè)備、技術(shù)、人力資源等。這樣，加工企業(yè)可以在 價值鏈中實現(xiàn)階梯式升級。具體來說，從接單產(chǎn)品組裝OEA(original equipment assembling)，到接單加工生產(chǎn)O

46、EM(original equipment manufacturer)，然后 到設(shè)計加工生產(chǎn)ODM(originaldesign manufacturer)，最后轉(zhuǎn)向自有品牌加工生 產(chǎn)OBM(own brand manufacturer)。這一過程，也是發(fā)展中國家產(chǎn)業(yè)升級的過程。 現(xiàn)實中，發(fā)展中國家的產(chǎn)業(yè)升級大都沒有如此順利。一方面，全球價值鏈中的高 附加值部分日益集中在研究、開發(fā)、設(shè)計、品牌、市場營銷等非生產(chǎn)性環(huán)節(jié)。領(lǐng) 先公司正是在這些環(huán)節(jié)構(gòu)建自身的核心競爭力，并通過自身的優(yōu)勢抑制加工企業(yè) 涉足，以減少威脅，保持領(lǐng)導(dǎo)地位。另一方面，加工企業(yè)往往缺乏進(jìn)入國際市場 的信息和渠道，領(lǐng)先公司的訂單成

47、為他們爭奪的資源，對領(lǐng)先公司的依賴使他們 失去向價值鏈高端發(fā)展的主動權(quán)。因此，文獻(xiàn)6認(rèn)為，在領(lǐng)先公司的治理下， 發(fā)展中國家的產(chǎn)業(yè)雖然能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)“產(chǎn)品升級”“ 過程升級” ，但“功能升級” “鏈 的升級”卻很難發(fā)生。 全球服裝價值鏈下的產(chǎn)業(yè)升級。考察其他國家的發(fā)展歷程，全球服裝價值鏈 下的產(chǎn)業(yè)升級可在不同水平上實現(xiàn)。包括：1)過程升級制造商通過接受領(lǐng)先 公司的訂單，不斷提高自己的生產(chǎn)能力和生產(chǎn)水平，提高生產(chǎn)管理和企業(yè)管理水 平，實現(xiàn)內(nèi)部過程的優(yōu)化；2)產(chǎn)品升級加工的產(chǎn)品從簡單到復(fù)雜，從價格便 宜的到價格昂貴的，從大批量、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化產(chǎn)品到差異化產(chǎn)品；3)功能升級從簡 單的來料加工過渡到更為一體化的OEM、OBM生產(chǎn)，并且在國內(nèi)產(chǎn)生更多的前向、 后向聯(lián)系，從雙邊的、不對稱的地區(qū)間的貿(mào)易往來過渡到包括價值鏈各環(huán)節(jié)的地 區(qū)內(nèi)的深度分工與貿(mào)易往來。從組織層面來看，全球服裝價值鏈下的產(chǎn)業(yè)升級， 大都由加工企業(yè)與領(lǐng)先公司之間的互動、學(xué)習(xí)來進(jìn)行，并通過不同模式的組織聯(lián) 系來實現(xiàn) 。在加工貿(mào)易中 ，品牌制造商 (OBM)對供應(yīng)商的要求較低，加工企業(yè)(OEA) 主要從事加工環(huán)節(jié)，很難進(jìn)一步成為OEM或其他形式的廠商。而零售商或品牌營 銷商則要求其供應(yīng)商具備服