營(yíng)銷(xiāo)學(xué)之分銷(xiāo)策略(英文版)

19/19Introduction:Asmarketerswellknow,distributionisamajorcomponentofthemarketingmix,avitalandnecessarypartoftheso-calledfourPs.AccordingtoPeterDrucker’sview,thedistributionasoneofthe‘finalfrontiers’ofmanagementbecauseitaffectallaspectsofthefirm’slong-termandshort-termactivityandinternalorganization.(AlanWest,1989,P2)Iftheproductisnotaccessible,itmustbedifficulttosellitandthenalltheeffortsmadetopromotetheproductionswillbeinvain.PeterDrucker’svisionofthefutureofmanagementseesfewer,morehighlyskilled,andlessdepartmentalizedindividualsorganizinganddirectingthehightechnologyfirmsintheindustrializedworld.Distributioninvolvesawholerangeofexternalandinternalfactors.Andwewilldiscussthefollowingaspects:Changingdistributionenvironment,componentsofdistribution,keyissuesofdistribution,andthevariousdistributionchanneldesigns.TheChangingDistributionEnvironment:Anycompaniesexistinaneraofacceleratingchangeespeciallytheinternationalfirms.Largenumbersofrelatedenvironmentalchangesrequiresimprovingofdistributionconsistently.Thepressuresexertedbychangeoncompanydistributionpolicyvarywiththecompanybutallcompanieswillsharethecommoneffectsofbroaderenvironmentalconditions.NewtechnologyNewtechnologyishavingadramaticimpactondistribution.Itisastonishingbecauseofcontinuallybeingrefinedandappliedindifferentsituations.Simplybyimprovingknowledgeofsales,volumes,productionleadtimes,currentinventories,manufacturerscanreducestockholdingatplants,controlinventoriesatsuppliersandchangeorderprocessingprocedure.(AlanWest,1989,P6)Emergenceofnewtechnologyleadsmoreeffectivelytransportation,infrastructureandevenproceduremanagement.Therehavebeenalterationsbetweencompaniesaswellaswithinthem.Forexample,theBarcodsystem.Itwasnotuseduntil1970swhichsimplesthecontrolsofpurchasing,producing,warehouse,sale.IndustrialconcentrationInallmajorwesterneconomies,industrialconcentrationortheownershipbyfewerandfewercompaniesoflargerandlargermarketsharesproceedsapace.Thishastwoimportanteffectsonsuppliers.First,theirprofitmarginswillbeputincreasinglyunderpressureaslargegroupsbuyinginlargequantitieswillwantlargediscounts.Forthefastmovingconsumergoodsmanufacturethemarketrealityisthattheyareachievingagreaterandgreatervolumeofsalesthroughasmallernumberofaccounts.Thischangeinfluencesthewaysuppliersorganizeandservicetheirmarkets,withdistributionbecominganincreasinglykeyissueineffectivemarketmanagement.SpeedofmarketchangeThehugegrowthincompetitive,internationalmarketshasplayedakeyroleinshapingthetotaldistributionenvironment.Thusthepaceofproductreplacementhassteadilyincreased.IndeedwhenonecomparesthemarketsofEurope,JapanandtheUS,itispossibletojudgethecompetitivenessoftheenvironmentbythespeedofproductchangeandinnovation.Companiesinhightechnologyandconsumerfashionhavetorespondmorerapidlytochangesinmarkettrendsandcontroltheirlevelsofinventoryandproductrangeaccordingly.IncreasingcostsofpersonnelLabourcostsroseconsistentlyinthiscentury.Forexample,Australianlabourcostchangedfrom14.4to24.6during2001to2005.()Distributionremainsverylabourintensiveformanyfirmsandchangesindistributionpolicyandorganizationoftenhaveasignificantimpactonstaffinglevels.RisingfuelGiventheshortageofcrudeoilresources,fuelcosthascontinuedtoriseinrealtermssincetheearly1970s.IntheApril2010,thepetrolpriceshavereachedanewrecordhigh,havingbrokenthepreviousrecordof119.7palitersetinJuly2008.Overseaspriceshavealsorisen.TheUKhastheeleventhhighestunleadedpriceinEuropeandthesecondhighestdieselprice.(AAFuelPrices,Apr20th)Transportationastheessentialpartofdistribution,fuelpricebecametheinitialissuetoconsider.LegislationChangingattitudestowardstheenvironmentandworkingpracticesaffectthedistributionenvironmentinvariouswayslikerestrictingthelengthoftheworkingdayfordeliverydriverstolimitationsonloadsizeandcontentforthedifferentdistributionsystems.Inaddition,Legislationofteninfluenceshowandhowmanyproductsaredistributedinparticularmarkets.Forexample,CommissionRegulation(EC)Noexemptedsupplyanddistributionagreementsconcerningfinalandintermediategoodsaswellasservices,providedthatthecombinedmarketshareofthepartiesconcerneddoesnotexceed30%oftherelevantmarket.(SummariesofEDlegislation,Feb21st,2007)EconomicvolatilityChangingexchangeratesinfluencesthedecisionofdistributionobviously.Partlybyaffectingthelevelofcompanyworkingcapital,theycontributetopressureonthedistributionsystembydemandingmuchcloserscrutinyofstocklevelsandtoreappraisetheirdistributionpolicies.Mostofthecompanieshadtoreappraisetheirdistributionpoliciesbecauseofoilpricevolatilityaccompaniedbyfluctuationsandthatwillaffectthetransportationcostdirectly.ChangesininfrastructureAmoderninfrastructureiscrucialtoeconomicsuccess.Allthegovernmentspaymoreattentiontothemodernizinganddevelopingroad,rail,water,airnetworkstosuitmoderneconomicenvironmentsandobviouslytherehavebeenramificationsfortheusersoftransportinfrastructures.Ontheotherhand,governmentpolicycanalsoindirectlyaffectthedistributionenvironmentoninfrastructure.LikeFrenchrailwayscarryahigherpercentageofnationalfreightthanBritishRailsincetheBritishgovernmentapplymorelimitationonthefreightroleforthenationallyownedrailwaythaninFrench.SocialtrendsHowconsumerspendtheirleisuretimeissignificantlymoreimportanttomakeadecisionontheultimatedistributionmethodsandthelocationtooutletssuchasretailingandsupermarketindustry.Thedifferencecanbevisiblebetweenthewesternandoriental.Asweknow,WesterncivilizationisaccustomedtocentralizepurchasingwhileOrientallikesretailingespeciallyChinesewhopreferfoodfresh.Baseonthelifestyle,retailingcouldbeabetterwayforOrientalcountriesthaninWestern.Thecomponentsofdistribution:Afirm’sdistributionobjectiveswillultimatelybehighlyrelated—somewillenhanceeachotherwhileotherswillcompete.(UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,para1)Fromtheobjective,thedistributionplannerwillbeabletorefinethecomponentsofthedistributionplan-channels,production,warehousing,inventory,transportationandorderprocessingsystems.Keyissuesofdistribution:Cost(FIGURE1JohnWiley&SonsP8)Sinceinternationalmarketsinvolvegreaterdistancesphysicaldistributioncostsarerelativehigher.Buttheadditionalcostsofservicingoverseasmarketsinvolvemorethanthoseoftransportcostalone.Thereisasubstantiallyincreasedpackagingcost,therequirementtoimproveeithertheproductpackingorthecartonstrengthtowithstandtheincreasedphysicaldemandsoftransporttomultinationalmarkets.Despiteofthosecosts,thecostsofadministrationaresubstantiallyhigherforinternationalmanagement.Andoftendocumentationisincorrectlycompleted,leadingtoafurtherincreaseincostaspaymentwillbedelayeduntilnewdocumentsaredispatched.(AlanWestP74)TransportcostsAdequatecostdataarerequiredtodeterminethetypeofvehicleitismosteconomictouseinanybusiness.Sinceavehicleisonlyineconomicusewhenitismovingwitharevenue-payingload,whatisneededisinformationabouthowmuchtimeisspentinthegarage,onmaintenance,loadingandunloading,howfullthevehicleisloadedforeachtrip,howmuchthesizeofeachdropinrelationtoitsvalueandhowmanythemileageforeachdropwerefactorsinfluencethetransportcostdirectly.WarehousingcostsDistributionmeansmorethandelivery,butwarehousing.Threemajorpartsconsistofthecostofrunningawarehouse.Firstofall,thereisdepreciationorrentalonthebuildingandanyequipmentusedinsideitsuchasracking,conveyorsandfork-lifttrucks.Secondly,thereisthecostofthepersonnelrequiredforhandling,documentationandmanagement.Thirdly,thenecessaryservicessuchasfuel,electricityandwaterhavealsotobetakenintoaccount.ThecostrelationshipsofstockManufacturingcost.Thelowestunitcostofmanufacturewillusuallyinvolveavailabilityoffinishedproductinexcessofdemandduringcertainperiods.Thesurpluscreatesastockcost.Demand.Thefrequencydistributionofdemandisthemainfactor.Andtheproblemisthefrequencycanonlybededucedfromhistoricalsalesdatawhichmaynotalwaysberelevanttowhatwillhappeninthefuture,andinvolvesfairlysophisticatedcalculationswhenrelatedtotheamountofsafetystocknecessarytosatisfythatdemand.LeadTimes.Tosatisfyanygivendemand,stocklevelswillbedeterminedbythesupplyleadtime-thetimeittakesforanorderforfreshsuppliestobefulfilled.Theshorterleadtime,thelowerthestocklevelrequired.Therefore,itisnecessarytoknowthescopethatexistsforreducingleadtimeandthecostofsodoing.Thiswillusuallymeanafasterandmoreexpensivemeansoftransport,butareductioninthetimetakentoprocessanorderandthetimetakentoplaceitwillalsoshortenleadtime.Packingcosts.Packagingisnotusedformerchandisingpurely.Itisdesignedtoprotectthegoodsfromdamageandtheftintheprocessofdistribution.Thiscanaffectthecostofinsuranceandwasteofdamagedgoods.Inaddition,itisrelatedtohecostoftransportbecauseifthisisbasedontheweightofthecompletepackagethenheavypackagingcostcanincreasetransportcostconsiderably,particularlyforairfreightwhichisthemostcostly.LocalenvironmentFirst,thelegalenvironmentinaninternationalmarketmayeffectivelydeterminethestructureofhedistributionsystem,whichmaybeentirelydifferentfromthatoperatinginthehomemarket.Second,therelegalguidelinesmaychangerapidly,dramaticallyalteringthedistributionenvironment.Inadditiontolegalconstraints,localbusinesspracticeofteninfluencesthewayinwhichaforeignfirmcaneffectivelypenetratethemarket.ControlThecombinedeffectofdistanceandlocalmarketstructurescanmeanthatthesupplier’scontroloverdistributionismorelimitedthanathome.Theshortageofinformationalsomeansthattheinventorycontrolsystemforoverseasmarketsislikelytobelesseffectivethaninthehomemarketmakingnecessaryhigherlevelsofbufferorreservestock.CurrencyThemovementofpaymentwithinthedistributionchanneliscomplicatedinoverseasmarketsbydifferingcurrenciesandexchangecomplexities.Thiswillbecompoundedwhentheinflationrateineithermarketishighandtherearelegalproblemsintransferringfunds,suchasforeignexchangecontrols.CommunicationDistancemakeseffectivecommunicationbetweensupplierandcustomermoredifficult.Thiswillbeparticularlyimportantwhentheproductsuppliediscomplexandrequiresahighleveloftechnicalsupportandsparepartprovision.Distributionchanneldesign:(Donaldf.Bowersox,P498)Fourgeneralapproachesareusedtodescribechannels:descriptiveinstitutional,graphic,commoditygroupingsandfunctional.DescriptiveinstitutionalapproachThischannelanalysisfocusesontheidentification,description,andclassificationofmiddlemeninstitutions.Suchinstitutionsaregroupedwithrespecttothemarketingservicestheyperform.Itcouldbedividedintothreepartsandatthefirstlevelthedistinctionismadebetweenmerchantandfunctionalmiddlemen.Atthesecondlevel,thedistinctionbetweenrangeandtypeofwholesaleservicesismade.Thethirdlevelpresentsdescriptivecriteriacommonlyappliedtothevariouscategoriesofwholesalersspecifiedbythefirsttwolevels.(Figure2P499)GraphicapproachThegraphsillustratetherangeofalternativesininstitutionalselectionatalllevelsofthemarketingprocess.Inthefourchannelsshown(Figure3),themosttypicalfortheconsumeristhewholesale-retail-consumerchannel.Thechannelselectedbythemanufacturerdependsuponthecharacteristicsoftheproduct,thebuyinghabitsoftheconsumer,andtheoverallmarketingstrategyofthefirm.Forexample,alargepersonalsalesforceisrequiredforsuccessfulmarketingofaproductnationwidedirectlytotheconsumer.ThecompaniessuchasAvonProductsandFullerhaveselectedthismethodofdistribution.Ontheotherhand,amanufacturerwithlimitedcapitalresourcesandalimitedproductlinemightelecttohireabrokeroranagenttosellproductsinconsumerchannels.Themainadvantageofagraphicapproachisthattiillustratesthemanylinksinmodernmarketing.Bytheuseofgraphsthemultiplicityofinstitutionsisfocusedinalogicalsequence.However,thesimplicityofflowdiagramstendstounderstatesomecomplexitiesofdesigningtheproperchannelstructureforanindividualfirm.CommodityGroupingsInanefforttolimittherangeofconsiderationsinchannelplanning,severalstudieshavebeencompletedwiththeobjectiveofdefiningchannelstructureindetailforspecificcommodities.Generallyempiricalinnature,commoditiesstudiescombineadescriptionofinstitutionswithagraphicillustrationofprimaryownershipflows.Althoughtheyareveryusefulinspecificsituations,suchcommodity-channeltreatmentsaretoospecificforgeneralplanning.FunctionaltreatmentsThefunctionalapproachtochannelstructuredevelopedasaresultofattemptstoprovidealogicalexplanationoftheoverallmarketingprocess.Afunction,inamarketingsense,representsama