當代商業(yè)概論總結

21/21Chapter1DefinebusinessandprofitsBusinessAnorganizationthatprovidesgoodsorservicestoearnprofitsProfits:Thepositivedifferencebetweenabusiness’srevenuesanditsexpensesrewardsforbusinesspeoplewhotaketherisks2.Distinguishbetweenbusinessandnot-for-profitorganizationsBusinessconsistsofallprofit-seekingactivitiesandenterprisesthatprovidegoodsandservicesnecessarytoaneconomicsystem.['ent?pra?z]事業(yè)，項目Not-for-profitorganizationsarebusinesslikeestablishments(機構;團體;企業(yè))thathaveprimaryobjectivesotherthanreturningprofitstotheirowners.Itoperatesinbothpublicserviceandprivatesector(部門，行業(yè)，領域).3.Identifythefactorsofproduction.Labor,capital,entrepreneurs([??ntr?pr?'n?:(r)]企業(yè)家),physicalresources,informationresources.4.GlobaleconomicsystemsPlannedeconomy,marketeconomyandmixedeconomiesPlannedEconomy：AneconomicsysteminwhichthegovernmentownsandoperatesallsourcesofproductionMarketEconomy：Aneconomicsysteminwhichbuyersandsellersinteract([??nt?r'?kt]相互作用；互相影響)basedonfreedomofchoiceMixedEconomies:PlannedandMarketTheeconomiesofmostcountriesincludebothplannedandmarketelements.Explainthefactorsthatdrivedemandandsupply.(1)FactorsDrivingDemand1)Price2)Customerpreferencesandine3)Pricesofsubstitute(['s?bst?tju:t]替代的)andplementary（[?k?mpl??mentri]互補的）items4)Numberofbuyersinthemarket5)Consumers’optimismaboutthefuture.（2）FactorsDrivingSupplyfactorsofproduction(Centralroleindeterminingtheoverallsupplyofgoodsandservicesisplayedbyfactorsofproduction.)Otherfactorsliketaxesandthenumberofsupplierswillalsoinfluencethesupply.Describeeachofthefourdifferenttypesofmarketstructuresinaprivateenterprisesystem.Perfectpetition，monopolistic[m??n?p??listik]petition(壟斷性競爭)，oligopoly([??l?'g?p?l?]寡頭,求過于供的市場情況)andmonopoly([m?'n?p?l?]壟斷)Perfectpetitionexistswhenallfirmsinanindustryaresmallandthenumberoffirmsislarge.Pricesaredeterminedbymarketforcesassupplyanddemand.Inmonopolisticpetition,manysellerstrytomaketheirproductsatleaseseemtobedifferentfromthoseofpetitors.Productdifferentiationgivessellerssomecontroloverprices.Whenanindustryhasonlyahandfulofsellers,anoligopolyexists.Theentryofnewpetitorsishard.Andthepricesofparableproductsareusuallysimilar.Amonopolyexistswhenanindustryormarkethasonlyoneproducer.Asolesupplierenjoysnearlypletecontroloverthepricesofitsproducts.CharacteristicPerfectpetitionMonopolisticpetitionOligopolyMonopolyExampleLocalfarmerStationerystoreSteelindustryPublicutilityNumberofpetitorsManyMany,butfewerthaninperfectpetitionfewnoneEaseofentryintotheindustryRelativelyeasyFairlyeasydifficultRegulatedbygovernmentSimilarityofgoods/servicesofferedbypetingfirmsIdenticalSimilarCanbesimilarordifferentNodirectlypetinggoodsorservicesLevelofcontroloverpricebyindividualfirmsNoneSomeSomeConsiderableIdentifyanddescribethefourstagesofthebusinesscycle.Prosperity,繁榮；recession衰退；depression蕭條；recovery復蘇[pr?'sper?t?][r??se?n][d?'pre?n]Explainhowproductivity,price-levelchanges,andemploymentlevelsaffectthestabilityofanation’seconomy.Discusshowmonetarypolicyandfiscalpolicyareusedtomanageaneconomy’sperformance.MonetaryPolicy貨幣政策governmentactionstoincreaseordecreasethemoneysupplyandchangebankingrequirementsandinterestratestoinfluencebanker’swillingnesstomakeloans.FiscalPolicy財政政策Governmentinfluenceseconomybyspendingandtaxationdecisions.Governmentusesfiscalpolicytocontrolinflations([?n'fle??n]通貨膨脹),reduceunemployment,improvethegeneralwelfareofcitizens,andencourageeconomicgrowth.Chapter21.Explaintheconceptsofbusinessethicsandsocialresponsibility.BusinessethicsarestandardsofbusinessconductandmoralvaluesbyemployeesonthejobSocialresponsibilityreferstotheoverallwayinwhichabusinessattemptstobalanceitsmitmentstorelevantgroupsandindividualsinitssocialenvironments.Describethefactorsthatinfluencebusinessethics,atindividual,organizational,legal,societallevelsIndividual:values,workbackground,familystatus,personalityOrganizational:TopLevelMgmt.Philosophy,theFirm’sRewardSystem,JobDimensionsEnvironmental:petition,economicconditions,social/culturalinstitutions3.Listthestagesinthedevelopmentofethicalstandards.Stage1:PreconventionalIndividualismainlylookingoutforhisorherinterest.Rulesarefollowedonlyoutoffearofpunishmentorhopeofreward.Stage2:ConventionalIndividualconsiderstheinterestsandexpectationsofothersinmakingdecisions.Rulesarerulesarefollowedbecauseitisapartofbelongtothegroups.Stage3:postconventionalIndividualfollowspersonalprinciplesforresolvingethicaldilemmas.Heorsheconsiderspersonal,groupandsocialinterests.Identifymonethicaldilemmasintheworkplace.Conflictofinterest,honestyandintegrity(正直),loyaltyVStruth,whistle-blowing(揭發(fā)).Discusshoworganizationsshapeethicalbehavior.Summarizetheresponsibilitiesofbusinesstothegeneralpublic,customers,employeesandinvestors.ResponsibilitiestotheGeneralPublicPublicHealthIssuesProtectingtheEnvironmentGreenwashing:UsingadvertisingtoprojectagreenimagewithoutsubstantiallyalteringprocessesorproductsRecycling—reprocessingofusedmaterialsforreusec)DevelopingtheQualityoftheWorkforced)CorporatePhilanthropy([f?'l?nθr?p?]慈善事業(yè))ResponsibilityTowardCustomersConsumerRights,UnfairPricing,EthicsinAdvertisingResponsibilityTowardEmployeesWorkplaceSafety;QualityofLifeIssues…….ResponsibilityTowardInvestorsImproperfinancialmanagement;Checkkiting空頭;Insidertrading;MisrepresentationoffinancesExplaindifferentstancesinCSRDefensiveDefensiveStance防衛(wèi)立場ObstructionistStance阻礙立場AcmodativeStance接納立場ProactiveStance積極立場LowestHighestActivelyAvoidsResponsibilityDoesLegalMinimumRespondstoRequestsActivelySeeksOpportunitiestoContributeChapter3IdentifytheindustriesinwhichmostsmallfirmsareestablishedServices服務業(yè),retailing零售業(yè),construction建筑業(yè),wholesaling批發(fā),financeandinsurance金融保險,manufacturing制造業(yè),transportation運輸.2.paretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofsmallbusinesses.Smallfirmscanoftenoperatewithgreaterflexibilitythanlargercorporationscanachieve.Thisflexibilityallowssmallbusinesstodevelopinnovativeproducts,lowercosts,providesuperiorcustomerservice,andfillisolatedniches.['a?s?le?t?d]偏遠的[n?t?iz]商機However,smallbusinessalsomustoperatewithfewerresourcesthanlargecorporationscanapply.Asaresult,theymustsufferfromfinanciallimitationsandmanagementshortings.Taxesandgovernmentregulationcanalsoimposeexcessiveburdensonsmallbusiness.3.Explainhowfranchisingcanprovideopportunitiesforbothfranchisorsandfranchisees（被特許人）.Franchiseesbenefitfromtheparentcorporations'experienceandexpertise.Thefranchisermaypickthestorelocation,negotiatethelease,purchaseequipment,andsupportfinancing.Franchisingoffersthebenefitofbrandrecognition,whichcanmakeiteasiertoattractcustomersandreducethecostsofadvertisingaswellasincreasethelikelihoodofsuccess.Definethetermentrepreneuranddistinguishamongentrepreneurs,small-businessowners,andmanagers.Entrepreneur:Businesspersonwhoacceptstherisksandopportunitiesinvolvedincreating,operatingandgrowinganewbusinessSmallBusinessOwner: Doesnothaveplansforgrowth.StartingandfundingasmallbusinessStartingfromScratch[skr?t?]從零開始;從頭做起;白手起家Disadvantage:HigherriskofbusinessfailureAdvantage:AvoidsproblemsofanexistingbusinessBuyinganExistingBusinessSomeprefernottoassumetherisksofstartinganewfirmFranchisingAnotherlessriskywaytobeginabusinessCf.equityfinancinganddebtfinancingIdentifythreedifferenttypesofentrepreneurs.企業(yè)家Classicentrepreneurs—personwhoseesabusinessopportunityanduseresourcestotapthatmarket.Intrapreneur—personwhodevelopsinnovationswithinalargeorganization.[?ntr?pr?'ni:?:]公司內企業(yè)家,內部創(chuàng)業(yè)者ChangeAgent—managerwhotriestorevitalizeanestablishedfirmtokeepitpetitive.[?ri:'va?t?la?z]vt.使恢復元氣；使新生；使復興Identifypersonalitytraitsthattypicallycharacterizesuccessfulentrepreneurs.Successfulentrepreneursmayhaveseveraltraits,includingvision,highenergylevel,needtoachieve,self-confidenceandoptimism,toleranceforfailure,creativity,toleranceforambiguity（含糊）,andinternationallocusofcontrol.1)Areresourcefulandopen-minded足智多謀，心胸開闊2)Areconcernedaboutgoodcustomerrelations良好顧客關系3)Desiretobetheirownboss4)Candealwithuncertaintyandrisk5)Relyonnetworks,businessplans,andconsensus（共識）Summarizethethreebasicformsofbusinessownershipandtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachform.1)SoleProprietorships(所有權)個人獨資企業(yè)Disadvantages:UnlimitedLiabilityDisadvantages:UnlimitedLiability(majordrawback)LimitedresourcesLimitedfundraisingcapability(有限的融資能力)LackofcontinuityFreedomSimpletoformLowstartupcostsTaxbenefitsDon’thavetosharetheprofits2)Partnerships合伙企業(yè)Inmostcases,partnerssharetheprofitsequallyorinproportiontotheirinvestment.Silentpartner:investfundsbutplaynoroleinitsmanagementDisadvantages:UnlimitedliabilityDisagreementsamongpartnersLackofcontinuityODisadvantages:UnlimitedliabilityDisagreementsamongpartnersLackofcontinuityOwnershiptransferAdvantages:Moretalentandmoney(themoststriking)Morefundraisingcapability['f?nd?re?z??]籌款的RelativelyeasytoformLimitedliabilityforlimitedpartnersTaxbenefits3)cooperativesbinethefreedomofsoleproprietorshipswiththefinancialpowerofcorporationsparativeSummary:ThreeFormsofBusinessBusinessformliabilityContinuityManagementSourcesofinvestmentProprietorshipPersonal,unlimitedEndswithdeathordecisionofownerPersonal,unrestrictedPersonalGeneralpartnershipPersonal,unlimitedEndswithdeathordecisionofanypartnerUnrestrictedordependsonpartnershipagreementPersonalbypartnersCorporationCapital,investedAsstatedincharter,perpetualorforspecifiedperiodofyearsUndercontrolofboardofdirectors,whichisselectedbystockholdersPurchaseofstock最大的區(qū)別：是否具有法人資質(entity)Disadvantages:DoubletaxationFluidcontrolDisadvantages:DoubletaxationFluidcontrol['flu:?d]不穩(wěn)定的plicatedandexpensivetoformAdvantages:LimitedLiabilityContinuity連貫性StrongerfundraisingcapabilityTypeofCorporationsTypeDistinguishingFeaturesCloselyheldStockheldbyonlyafewpeopleSubjecttocorporatetaxationPubliclyheldStockwidelyheldamongmanyinvestorsSubjecttocorporatetaxationSubchapterSOrganizedmuchlikeacloselyheldcorporationSubjecttoadditionalregulationSubjecttopartnershiptaxationLimitedliabilityOrganizedmuchlikeapubliclyheldcorporationSubjecttoadditionalregulationSubjecttopartnershiptaxationProfessionalSubjecttopartnershiptaxationLimitedbusinessliabilityUnlimitedbusinessliabilityMultinationalSpansnationalboundariesSubjecttoregulationinmultiplecountries10.Describerecenttrendsinmergers合并andacquisitions收購.Merger—unionoftwoormorefirmstoformanewpanyAcquisition—purchaseofonepanybyanotherChapter4UnderstandsignificanceofglobalizationGlobalizationcanmakeuseofinternationalsourcesoffactorsofproduction.Globalizationexpendsinternationalmarkets.Thepotentialforhigherstandardsoflivingandimprovedbusinessprofitability.Globalizationreducesfirms’dependenceontheeconomiesoftheirhomenationsDiscusstherelationshipofabsoluteandparativeadvantagetointernationaltrade.(Idon’tknow.)AbsoluteAdvantageexistswhenacountrycanproducesomethingthatischeaperorhigherqualitythanothercountry.parativeAdvantageexistswhenacountrycanproducemoreefficientlyorbetterthanothernations.Bothofthemtranslateintopetitiveadvantage.Describehownationsmeasureinternationaltradeandthesignificanceofexchangerates.Nationsmeasureinternationaltradebybalanceoftrade,balanceofpaymentsandexchangeRates.ExchangeRatesHeavilyImpactGlobalTradeWhenaneconomy’scurrencyisstrong:DomesticpaniesfindithardertoexportproductsForeignpaniesfinditeasiertoexportproductsDomesticpaniesmaymoveproductiontocheapersitesinforeigncountriesWhenaneconomy’scurrencyisweak:DomesticpaniesfinditeasiertoexportproductsForeignpaniesfindithardertoexportproductsForeignpaniesmayinvestinproductionfacilitiesEuromoncurrencysharedamongmostofthemembersoftheEuropeanUnion(excludingDenmark,Sweden,andtheUnitedKingdom)Absoluteadvantageabilitytoproducesomethingcheaperand/orhigherqualitythananyothercountryparativeadvantageabilitytoproducemoreefficientlyorbetterthanothernationsNationalpetitiveadvantageinternationalpetitiveadvantagestemmingfromabinationoffactorconditions,demandconditions,relatedandsupportingindustries,andfirmstrategies,structures,andrivalries.Factorconditions:laborcapitalentrepreneursphysicalresourcesandinformationresourcesDemandconditions:reflectalargedomesticconsumerbasethatpromotesstrongdemandforinnovativeproductsRelatedandsupportingindustries:stronglocalorregionalsuppliersand/orindustrialcustomersStrategies,structures,andrivalries:firmsandindustriesthatstresscostreduction,productquality,higherproductivity,andinnovativeproducts.InternationalbusinessmanagementGoinginternational:gauginginternationaldemand;adaptingtocustomerneeds;outsourcingandoff-shoringLevelofinternationalinvolvement:exportersandimporters;internationalfirms;multinationalfirmsOutsourcing:practiceofpayingsuppliersanddistributorstoperformcertainbusinessprocessesortoprovideneededmaterialsorservicesOff-shoring:practiceofoutsourcingtoforeigncountriesBenefits:1)focusontheircoreactivitiesandavoidgettingsidetrackedonsecondaryactivities;2)reducecostsInternationalorganizationstructuresIndependentagent;licensingarrangements;branchoffices;foreigndirectinvestmentIndependentagent:foreignindividualororganizationthatagreestorepresentanexporter’sinterestsLicensingarrangement:arrangementinwhichfirmschooseforeignindividualsororganizationstomanufactureormarkettheirproductsinanothercountryBranchoffice:foreignofficesetupbyaninternationalormultinationalfirmStrategicalliance:arrangement(alsocalledjointventure)inwhichapanyfindsaforeignpartnertocontributeapproximatelyhalfofresourcesneededtoestablishandoperateanewbusinessinthepartner’scountryForeigndirectinvestment:arrangementinwhichafirmbuysorestablishestangibleassetsinanothercountryIdentifythemajorbarriersthatconfrontglobalbusinesses.1)SocialandCulturalDifferences,suchasdifferentLanguage,valuesandReligiousAttitudes.2)EconomicDifferences,suchasinfrastructure,CurrencyConversionandShifts.['?nfr?str?kt??(r)]基礎設施；基礎建設3)PoliticalandLegalDifferences,suchaspoliticalclimate,legalenvironmentandinternationalregulations.Legalandpoliticaldifferences:setconditionsfordoingbusiness;controlflowofcapitalandusetaxlegislation;evenconfiscatethepropertyofforeign-ownedpanies.Quotas,tariffs,andsubsidiesQuota:restrictiononthenumberofproductsofacertaintypethatcanbeimportedintoacountryEmbargo:governmentorderbanningexportationand/orimportationofaparticularproductorallproductsfromaparticularcountryTariff:taxleviedonimportedproductsSubsidy:governmentpaymenttohelpadomesticbusinesspetewithforeignfirmsProtectionism:practiceofprotectingdomesticbusinessagainstforeignpetitionLocalcontentlaws:lawrequiringthatproductssoldinaparticularcountrybeatleastpartlymadethereBusinesspracticelaw:laworregulationgoverningbusinesspracticesingivencountriespracticesingivencountriesCartel:associationofproducerswhosepurposeistocontrolsupplyandpricesDumping:sellingaproductabroadforlessthanthecostofproductionathomeExplainhowinternationaltradeorganizationsandeconomicmunitiesreducebarrierstointernationaltrade.（不確定）ManyinternationaltradeorganizationspromoteInternationalTradetoreducebarriers,suchasWorldTradeOrganization(WTO),WorldBank,andInternationalMonetaryFundEconomicmunitiescreatepartnerships,foundfreetradearea,customsareaandmonmarkettoreducebarriers.SuchasEuropeanUnionandNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA).parethedifferentlevelsofinvolvementusedbybusinesseswhenenteringglobalmarkets.ExportersandImportersInternationalFirmsMultinationalFirms跨國的Exporter:firmthatdistributesandsellsproductstooneormoreforeigncountriesImporter:firmthatbuysproductsinforeignmarketsandthenimportsthemforresaleinitshomecountryInternationalfirms:firmsthatconductasignificantportionofitsbusinessinforeigncountries;conductagooddealoftheirbusinessabroadandmayevenmaintainoverseasmanufacturingfacilities.Multinationalfirm:firmthatdesigns,produces,andmarketsproductsinmanynationsDistinguishbetweenaglobalbusinessstrategyandamulti-domesticbusinessstrategy.GlobalBusinessStrategies(Standardization)Offeringastandardized,worldwideproductandsellingitinessentiallythesamemannerthroughoutafirm’sdomesticandforeignmarkets.Multi-domesticBusinessStrategy(Adaptation)Developingandmarketingproductstoservedifferentneedsandtastesofseparatenationalmarkets.Chapter5Management:processofplanning,organizing,leading,andcontrollinganorganization’sresourcestoachieveitsgoalsOrganizing:managementprocessofdetermininghowbesttoarrangeanorganization’sresourcesandactivitiesintoacoherentstructureLeading:managementprocessofguidingandmotivatingemployeestomeetanorganization’sobjectivesControlling:managementprocessofmonitoringanorganization’sperformancetoensurethatitismeetingitsgoalsIdentifytypesofmanagersbylevelandarea.bylevel：topmanagers,middlemanagers,supervisorymanagers(first-linemanagers)byarea:humanresourcesmanagers,operationmanagers,marketingmanagers,informationmanagers,financialmanagersandothermanagers.Topmanager:managerresponsibleforafirm’soverallperformanceandeffectivenessMiddlemanager:managerresponsibleforimplementingthestrategiesandworkingtowardthegoalssetbytopmanagersFirst-linemanager:managerresponsibleforsupervisingtheworkforsupervisingtheworkofemployeesDescribethebasicmanagementskills.Technicalskills—abilitytounderstandandapplythetechniques,knowledge,andtoolsandequipmentofaspecificdisciplineordepartmentHumanskills—interpersonalskillsthatenableamanagertoworkeffectivelywithandthroughpeopleConceptualskills[k?n?sept?u?l]adj.觀念的，概念的—abilitytoseetheorganizationasaunifiedwholeandtounderstandhoweachpartoftheoverallorganizationinteractswithotherpartsDecision-MakingSkillsTime-ManagementSkillsTechnicalskills:skillsneededtoperformspecializedtasksHumanrelationsskills:skillsinunderstandingandgettingalongwithpeopleConceptualskills:abilitiestothinkintheabstract,diagnoseandanalyzedifferentsituations,andseebeyondthepresentsituationDecision-makingskills:skillsindefiningproblemsandselectingthebestcoursesofactionTimemanagementskills:skillsassociatedwiththeproductiveuseoftimeStrategicmanagement:processofhelpinganorganizationmaintainaneffectivealignmentwithitsenvironmentGoal:objectivethatabusinesshopesandplanstoachieveStrategy:broadsetoforganizationalplansforimplementingthedecisionsmadeforachievingorganizationalgoalsMissionstatement:organization’sstatementofhowitwillachieveitspurposeintheenvironmentinwhichitconductsitsbusinessLong-termgoal:goalsetforanextendedtime,typicallyfiveyearsormoreintothefutureIntermediategoal:goalsetforaperiodofonetofiveyearsintothefutureShort-termgoal:goalsetfortheverynearfutureCorporatestrategy:strategyfordeterminingafirm’soverallattitudetowardgrowthandthewayitwillmanageitsbusinessorproductlinesBusiness(orpetitivestrategy)strategy,atthebusiness-unitorproduct-linelevel,focusingonimprovingafirm’spetitivepositionFunctionalstrategy:strategybywhichmanagersinspecificareasdecidehowbesttoachievecorporategoalsthroughproductivityExplaintheimportanceofsettinggoalsandformulatingstrategies.GoalSetting:–Providesdirectionandguidanceformanagersatalllevels–Helpsfirmsallocateresources–Helpstodefinecorporateculture–HelpsmanagersassessperformanceFormulatingstrategiesdescribeanorganization’sintentions,outlinehowtomeetthegoals,andincludetheresponsivenesstonewchallengesandnewneeds.Strategyformulation:creationofabroadprogramfordefiningandmeetinganorganization’sgoalsProcessofstrategicplanning.Step1: SettingStrategicGoalsStrategicgoalsarederivedfromafirm’smissionstatementStep2: AnalyzingtheOrganizationandtheEnvironment:SWOTAnalysisAssessinginternalstrengthsandweaknessesandexternalopportunitiesandthreatsEnvironmentalanalysisOrganizationalanalysisStep3: MatchingtheOrganizationandItsEnvironmentMatchingenvironmentalthreatsandopportunitiesagainstcorporatestrengthsandweaknessesStrategicgoal:goalderiveddirectlyfromafirm’smissionstatementSwotanalysis:identificationandanalysisoforganizationalstrengthsandweaknessesandenvironmentalopportunitiesandthreatsaspartofstrategyformulationEnvironmentalanalysis:processofscanningthebusinessenvironmentforthreatsandopportunitiesOrganizationalanalysis:processofanalyzingafirm’sstrengthsandweaknessesSummarizethemajorbenefitsofplanninganddistinguishamongstrategicplanning,tacticalplanning,andoperationalplanning.Planning:managementprocessofdeterminingwhatanorganizationneedstodoandhowbesttogetitdonePlanninghelpsapanytoturnvisionintoaction,takeadvantageofopportunities,andavoidcostlymistakes.StrategicPlansStepsneededtomeetstrategicgoals;resourceallocations;focusonpanyprioritiesTacticalPlansShorter-termplansforimplementingspecificaspectsofthepany’sstrategicplansOperationalPlansShort-termtargetsfordaily,weekly,ormonthlyperformanceStrategicplan:planreflectingdecisionsaboutresourceallocations,panypriorities,andstepsneededtomeetstrategicgoalsTacticalplan:generallyshort-termplanconcernedwithimplementingspecificaspectsofapany’sstrategicplansOperationalplan:plansettingshort-termtargetsfordaily,weekly,ormonthlyperformanceContingencyplanning:identificationofaspectsofabusinessoritsenvironmentthatmightentailchangesinstrategyCrisismanagement:thesharedexperiences,stories,beliefs,andnormsthatcharacterizeanorganizationExplainthedevelopmentandimportanceofcorporateculture.CorporateCultureSharedexperiences,stories,beliefs,andnormsthatcharacterizeanorganizationDefinestheworkandbusinessclimateinanorganizationCulturetakestimeandefforttoformandonceformed,itisrelativelystable…isItistypicallyshapedbythefirm’sfounderandperpetuatedthroughformalprogramssuchastraining,rituals,andceremonies,aswellasthroughinformaldiscussionsamongemployees.Corporateculture:thesharedexperiences,stories,beliefs,andnormsthatcharacterizeanorganizationChapter6Organizationalstructure:specificationofthejobstobedonewithinanorganizationandthewaysinwhichtheyrelatetooneanotherOrganizationchart:diagramdepictingapany’sstructureandshowingemployeeswheretheyfitintoitsoperationsChainofmand:reportingrelationshipswithinapanyJobspecialization:processofidentifyingthespecificjobsthatneedtobedoneanddesignatingthepeoplewhowillperformthemDepartmentalization:processofgro