質(zhì)性研究入門.教學(xué)內(nèi)容

質(zhì)性研究(yánjiū)入門章崇會(huì)第一頁，共33頁。研究(yánjiū)問題研究(yánjiū)目的研究(yánjiū)背景研究方法研究效度第二頁，共33頁。研究(yánjiū)時(shí)代背景下的人性問題我們必須借有適當(dāng)?shù)摹爸薪椤眮碚J(rèn)識(shí)研究對(duì)象。你沒有相應(yīng)的背景，就看不出來，就是從實(shí)際出發(fā)就是看看到底怎么回事？中介：創(chuàng)造出各種超驗(yàn)的哲學(xué)學(xué)說，如人類為了尋求最根本的東西(dōngxī)的意義，創(chuàng)造本體論（可能隱藏在經(jīng)驗(yàn)背后），它在一段時(shí)間內(nèi)就是人們普遍認(rèn)為的超驗(yàn)的存在。社會(huì)科學(xué)的哲學(xué)背景：本體論(ontology)—無本體論；主客體關(guān)系—主體間（intersubjective）關(guān)系；現(xiàn)象學(xué)（本質(zhì)即現(xiàn)象）--闡釋學(xué)（理解和闡釋）--建構(gòu)主義（建構(gòu)現(xiàn)實(shí)）……。第三頁，共33頁。Insearchofexcellence:lessonsformAmerica’sbest-runcompanies

PetersandWaterman(1982)Theyvisitedcompanies,conductedextensiveinterviews,andstudiedcorporatedocuments.Theyextractedeightattributesofexcellence:abiasforaction;closetothecustomer;autonomyandentrepreneurship;productivitythroughpeople;hands-on,value-driven;sticktotheknitting;simpleform,leanstaff;andsimultaneousloose-tightproperties.Theirresearchhelpedlaunchthequalitymovementthathasnowmovedfrombusinessworldtonot-for-profitorganizationsandgovernment.第四頁，共33頁。HighlyeffectivepeopleStephencovey(1990)Casestudiesandidentifiedsevenhabitsthesepeoplepractice:beingproactive;beginningwiththeendinmind;puttingfirstthingsfirst;thinkwin/win;seekingfirsttounderstand,thenseekingtobeunderstood;synergizing,orengagingincreativecooperation;self-renewal.第五頁，共33頁。AnastuteanddedicatedobserverofrelationshipClarkMoustakeas(1995),ahumanisticpsychologistandphenomenologist.Drewdeeplyonhisownexperiencesandclinicalcasestoidentify,distinguish,andelaboratethreeprimaryprocessesthatcontributetothedevelopmentofarelationship:Being-in,Being-for,andBeingwith.Beingwith,asenseofjointenterprise—twopeoplefullyinvolved,struggling,exploring,sharing.Throughcases,dialogues,quotations,case,andintrospectivereflections.Authorilluminatestheprocessofmovingtheprocessandexemplifiesthecontributionofphenomenologicalinquirytohumanisticpsychology.第六頁，共33頁。

Thedesignofaresearchstudybeginswiththeselectionofatopicandaparadigm.Aparadigmisessentiallyaworldview,awholeframeworkofbeliefs,valuesandmethodswithinwhichresearchtakesplace.Itisthisworldviewwithinwhichresearcherswork.

第七頁，共33頁。AimforcredibilityThetheoreticalpositioningoftheresearcherThecongruencebetweenmethodologyandmethodsThestrategiestoestablishrigorTheanalyticlensthroughwhichthedataareexamined第八頁，共33頁。TheoreticalpositioningReferstotheresearcher’smotives,presuppositions,andpersonalhistorythatleadshimorhertoward,andsubsequentlyshapes,aparticularinquiry.Afurtherpositioningoccursthroughdisciplinarysocializationtoparticularresearchapproaches.Disciplinarysocializationoccurswhenaresearchreceiveshisorherresearchtrainingwithinadisciplinarycultureorsettingwhereaparticularapproachiswellknownandaccepted.Theirfailuretoaddressthesefoundationsmaybemorereflectionoftheireducationalexposurethantheirpersonalresearchcapacity.Investigatorsmustalsodemonstratecongruencebetweenthequestionsposedandthegenericapproachemployed.第九頁，共33頁。MethodologyandmethodsThetermsmethodologyandmethodareusedsynonymouslyorareusedinaninconsistentmanner.Sorelevantmethodologicalissuesandmethodmustbeunderstoodandclearlyarticulatedingenericqualitativestudies.Disciplinaryallegiancesmustbemadeexplicitthenfortworeason:Asasignaltotheresearcher’stheoreticalpositioningAsanindicationofthepossibledisciplinary-relatedmethodologicalinterpretationsandassociatedmethodsofauthors第十頁，共33頁。ThestrategiestoestablishrigorOurpositionisthatqualitativeresearchersneedto:Articulateaknowledgeable,theoreticallyinformedchoiceregardingtheirapproachtorigorSelectanapproachthatisphilosophicallyandmethodologicallycongruentwiththeirinquiryResearchers’approachestothesetwoissuesmustreflectanunderstandingthatrigorisadeeplytheoreticalissue,notatechnicaloneInvestigatorsneedtoensurerigorbyadheringtoprinciplesthatarecongruentwiththeassumptionsoftheapproachtheyareusing.Ifaparticipatoryactionapproachisused,thestudymaybeevaluatedthedegreetowhichthecollaborationwasachieved,andchangefacilitatedamongparticipantsandresearchers.Theresearchchoicesmadeinanygenericstudyareinformedbyasetofassumptions,preconceptionsandbeliefs.Theseinfluencesneedtobearticulated.第十一頁，共33頁。TheanalyticlensRefertothemethodologicalandinterpretivepresuppositionsthataresearcherbringstobearonhisorherdata.Theanalyticlensisabouthowtheresearcherengageswithhisorherdata.Identificationoftheresearcher’spositionisoftheutmostimportance,andresearchersmustmaketheirownassumptionsclear,aswellasensurethatthemethodstheychoosearecongruentwiththoseassumptions.第十二頁，共33頁。VarietyinqualitativeinquiryLincolnandGuba(2000)identifyfive“alternativeinquiryparadigms”:positivism,post-positivism,criticaltheory,constructivism,andparticipatory.Schwandt(2000)discusses“threeepistemologicalstancesforqualitativeinquiry:interpretivism,hermeneutics,andsocialconstructionism”.Crotty(1998)offersthreeprimaryepistemologicalinfluences:objectivism,constructionism,andsubjectivism;these,hepositshaveinfluencesinvaryingdegreesdifferenttheoreticalperspectives:positivism(andpostpositivism),interpretivism(symbolicinteraction,phenmenology,hermeneutics),criticalinquiry,feminism,andpostmodernism.Creswell(1998)distinguishes“fivequalitativetraditionsofinquiry”:biography,phenomenology,groundedtheory,ethnography,andcasestudy.第十三頁，共33頁。DistinguishthembyanswerstosixcorequestionsWhatdowebelieveaboutthenatureofreality?(ontological)Howdoweknowwhatweknow?(epistemological)Howshouldwestudytheworld?(methodological)Whatisworthknowing?(philosophicaldebatesaboutwhatmattersandwhy)Whatquestionsshouldweask?(disciplinaryandinterdisciplinarydebatesabouttheimportanceofvariousburningquestions,inquirytraditions,andareasofinquiry)Howdowepersonallyengageininquiry?(praxisdebatesaboutinterjectingpersonalexperiencesandvaluesintotheinquiry,includingissuesofvoiceandpoliticalaction)第十四頁，共33頁。EthnographyWhatisthecultureofthisgroupofpeople?Cultureisthatcollectionofbehaviorpatternsandbeliefsthatconstitutes“standardsfordecidingwhatis,standardsfordecidingwhatcanbe,standardsfordecidinghowonefeelsaboutit,standardsforwhattodoaboutit,andstandardsfordecidinghowtogoaboutdoingit”(Goodenough1971:21-22).Thereisdebateaboutthenatureofitsessence(Douglass2000)aswellasseveraldifferentstylesofethnography,includingtheclassicholisticstyleofBenedictandMead,thesemioticstyleofBoasandGeertz,andthebehavioriststyleoftheWhitings(Sanday1983).Anthropologisthavetraditionallystudiednonliteratecultures.Modernanthropologistsapplyethnographicmethodstothestudyofcontemporarysocietyandsocialproblems,forexample,technologicaldiffusion,globalization,environmentaldegradation,poverty,thegapbetweenrichandpoor,andsocietalbreakdown(Scudder1999);education(SprindlerandHammond2000);addiction(Agar1986;AgarandReisinger1999);andinternationalborderconflicts(Hart1999).Theimportanceofunderstandingculture,especiallyinrelationtochangeeffortsofallkinds,isthecornerstoneof“appliedethnography”asitemergedinmodernsociety(Chambers2000)Sincethe1980s,understandingculturehasbecomecentralinorganizationalstudies(Morgan1986,1989;Pettigrew1983),inmuchorganizationaldevelopmentwork(RaiaandMargulies1985;Louis1983),includingmajoreffortstochangeanorganization’sculture(Schein1985;SilverzweigandAllen1976).Organizationalethnographyhasadistinguishedhistory第十五頁，共33頁。SocialconstructionandconstructivismHowhavethepeopleinthissettingconstructedreality?Whataretheirreportedperceptions,“truth”,explanations,beliefs,andworld-view?Whataretheconsequencesoftheirconstructionsfortheirbehaviorsandforthosewithwhomtheyinteract?Whatisdefinedorperceivedbypeopleasrealisrealinitsconsequences.GubeandLincoln(1989):Truthisamatterofconsensusamonginformedandsophisticatedconstructors,notofcorrespondencewithobjectivereality.Facthavenomeaningexceptwithinsomevalueframework,hencetherecannotbean“objective”assessmentofanyproposition.Causeandeffectsdonotexistexceptbyimputation….Phenomenacanonlybeunderstoodwithinthecontextinwhicharestudied;findingsfromonecontextcannotbegeneralizedtoanother;neitherproblemsnorsolutionscanbegeneralizedfromonesettingtoanother….Dataderivedfromconstructivistinquiryhaveneitherstatusnorlegitimation;theyrepresentsimplyanotherconstructiontobetakenintoaccountinthemovetowardconsensus.(pp.44-45)第十六頁，共33頁。phenomenologyWhatisthemeaning,structure,andessenceofthelivedexperienceofthisphenomenonforthispersonorgroupofpeople?Asaphilosophicaltradition,itwasfirstusedinthedevelopmentofarigoroussciencebyphilosopherEdmundH.Husserl(1859-1938).TheworkofAlfredSchutz(1899-1959)wasimportantinfluenceinapplyingandestablishingphenomenologyasamajorsocialscienceperspective(Schutz1977).Nowithasbecomeimportantincertainapproachestopsychotherapy(Moustakas1988,1995).Varyingformscomplicatethepictureevenmore;transcendental,existential,andhermeneuticphenomenologyofferdifferentnuancesoffocus—theessentialmeaningsofindividualexperience,thesocialconstructionofgroupreality,andthelanguageandstructureofcommunication,respectively(Schwandt2001:191-194).Focusonexploringhowhumanbeingsmakesenseofexperienceandtransformexperienceintoconsciousness,bothindividuallyandassharedmeaning.Thisrequiresmethodologically,carefully,andthoroughlycapturinganddescribinghowpeopleexperiencesomephenomenon.Togathersuchdata,onemustundertakein-depthinterviewswithpeoplewhohavedirectlyexperiencedthephenomenonofinterest;thatis,theyhave“l(fā)ivedexperience”第十七頁，共33頁。SymbolicinteractionWhatcommonsetofsymbolsandunderstandingshasemergedtogivemeaningtopeople’sinteractions?It,asocial-psychologicalapproachcloselyassociatedwithGeorgeHerbertMead(1934)isaperspectivethatplacesgreatemphasisontheimportanceofmeaningandinterpretationasessentialhumanprocessesinreactionagainstbehaviorismandmechanicalstimulus-responsepsychology.Blumerarticulatedthreemajorpremisesasfundamentaltosymbolicinteractionism:Humanbeingacttowardthingsonthebasisofthemeaningsthatthethingshaveforthem.Themeaningofthingsarisesoutofthesocialinteractiononehaswithone’sfellows.Themeaningsofthingsarehandledinandmodifiedthroughaninterpretativeprocessusedbythepersonindealingwiththethingsheorsheencounters.Labelingtheory—thepropositionthatwhatpeoplearecalledhasmajorconsequencesforsocialinteraction—hasbeenaprimaryfocusofinquiryinsymbolicinteraction.第十八頁，共33頁。Orientationalqualitativeinquiry:feministinquiry,criticaltheory,andqueertheoryasexamplesItbeginswithanexplicittheoreticalorideologicalperspectivethatdetermineswhatconceptualframeworkwilldirectfieldworkandtheinterpretationoffindings.Afeministperspectivepresumestheimportanceofgenderinhumanrelationshipsandsocietalprocessesandorientsthestudyinthatdirection(Guerrero1999b;RibbensandEdwards1998;Maguire1996).Ithasprinciples:AsenseofconnectednessandequalitybetweenresearcherandresearchedExplicitlyacknowledgingandvaluing“women’swaysofknowing”includingintegratingreason,emotion,intuition,experience,andanalyticthoughtParticipatoryprocessesthatsupportconsciousness-raisingandtheresearcherreflexivityEngageinusingknowledgeforchange,especially“knowledgeaboutwomenthatwillcontributetowomen’sliberationandemancipation”Queertheory,anorientationalapproachfocusedonsexualorientation,“tooksocialconstructionistcritiqueoftheunified,autonomousself”Criticaltheoryisconcernedinparticularwithissuesofpowerandjusticeandthewaysthattheeconomy,mattersofrace,class,andgender,ideologies,discourses,education,religionandothersocialinstitutionsandculturaldynamicsinteracttoconstructasocialsystem….inquirythataspirestothenamecriticalmustbeconnectedtoanattempttoconfronttheinjusticeofaparticularsociety….第十九頁，共33頁。StrategicthemesinqualitativeinquiryDesignstrategiesNaturalisticinquiryEmergentdesignPurposefulDatacollectionandFieldworkstrategiesQualitativedataPersonalexperienceandengagementEmpathicneutralityandmindfulnessDynamicsystemsAnalysisstrategiesUniquecaseorientationInductiveanalysisandcreativesynthesisHolisticperspectiveContextsensitivityVoice,perspective,andreflexivity第二十頁，共33頁。Naturalisticinquiry

Observationstakeplaceinreal-worldsettingsandpeopleareinterviewedwithopen-endedquestionsinplacesandunderconditionsthatarecomfortableforandfamiliartothem.Inawilderness-basedleadershiptrainingprogram,theonly“unnatural”elementsofresearchers’participationisthat:EveryoneknewIwastakingnotestodocumentwhathappenedAttheendofIconductedopen-ended,conversationalinterviewswithstaff.第二十一頁，共33頁。EmergentdesignItcannotbegiveninadvance;itmustemerge,develop,unfold…Designflexibilitystemsformtheopen-endednatureofnaturalisticinquiryaswellaspragmaticconsiderations.Doctoralstudentsdoingqualitativedissertationswillusuallybeexpectedtopresentfairlydetailedfieldworkproposalsandinterviewschedulessothattheapprovingdoctoralcommitteecanguidethestudentandbesurethattheproposedworkwillleadtosatisfyingdegreerequirements.第二十二頁，共33頁。PersonalexperienceandengagementDirectpersonalexperienceandengagement:goingintothefield.Inthinkingabouttheissueofclosenesstothepeopleandsituationsbeingstudied,itisusefultorememberthatmanymajorcontributionstoourunderstandingoftheworldhavecomeformscientists’personalexperiences.Onefindsmanyinstanceswhereclosenesstosourcesofdatamadekeyinsightspossible—Piaget’sclosenesstohischildren,Freud’sproximitytoandempathywithhispatients,Darwin’sclosenesstonature,…Inshort,closenessdoesn’tmakebiasandlossofperspectiveinevitable;distanceisnoguaranteeofobjectivity.第二十三頁，共33頁。EmpathicneutralityTheidealsofabsoluteobjectivityandvalue-freescienceareimpossibletoattaininpracticeandareofquestionabledesirabilityinthefirstplacesincetheyignoretheintrinsicallysocialnatureandhumanpurposesofresearch.Preferringsuchlanguageastrustworthinessandauthenticitytosupersedethehotbuttontermobjectiveandtheepithetsubjective.Theneutralinvestigatorenterstheresearcharenawithnoaxtogrind,notheorytoprove,andnopredeterminedresultstosupport.Researchstrategiesincludetechniquesforhelpingtheinvestigatorbecomeawareofanddealwithselectiveperception,personalbiasesandtheoreticalpredispositions.Requirethattheinvestigatorcarefullyreflecton,dealwith,andreportpotentialsourcesofbiasanderror.Systematicdatacollectionprocedures,rigoroustraining,multipledatasources,triangulation,externalreviewsandothertechniques.第二十四頁，共33頁。EmpathyandinsightTheideaofacquiringan“inside”understanding—theactors’definitionsofthesituation—isapowerfulcentralconceptforunderstandingthepurposeofqualitativeinquiry.----ThomasA.Schwandt(2000:102)第二十五頁，共33頁。Adynamic,developmentalperspectiveAquestionnaireislikeaphotograph.Aqualitativestudyislikeadocumentaryfilm—offersafluidsenseofdevelopment,movement,andchange.第二十六頁，共33頁。InductiveanalysisandcreativesynthesisBenjaminWhorf’sdevelopmentofthefamousWhorfhypothesis—thatlanguageshapesourexperienceofenvironmentandthatwordsshapeperceptionsandactionsakindoflinguisticrelativitytheory(Schultz1991)—providesaninstructiveexampleofinductiveanalysis.Heinductivelyformulatedhisgeneraltheoryaboutlanguageandperceptionthathasinformedahalf-centuryofcommunicationsscholarship(Lee1996)Theprecisenatureofinductiveanalysisdepends,inpart,onthepurposeoftheanalysisandthenumberandtypesofcasesinastudy.Thefirsttaskistodoacarefuljobindependentlywritinguptheseparatecases.Thencross-caseanalysiscanbegininsearchofpatternsandthemesthatcutacrossindividualexperiences.第二十七頁，共33頁。HolisticperspectiveGathersdataonmultipleaspectsofthesettingunderstudytoassembleacomprehensiveandcompletepictureofthesocialdynamicoftheparticularsituationorprogram.Greaterattentioncanbygiventonuance,setting,interdependencies,complexities,idiosyncrasies,andcontext.Conductintheanalyticaltraditionof“l(fā)et’stakeitapartandseehowitworks”.APortuguesecolleaguetoldofdrivinginaremoteareaofhiscountrywhenhecameuponasizableherdofsheepbeingdrivenalongtheroadbyashepherd.Hestruckupaconversationwiththeshepherd.“howmanysheepdoyouhave?”heasked.“Idon’tknow,”respondedtheyoungman.Surprisedatthisanswer,heasked,“howdoyoukeeptrackoftheflockifyoudon’tknowhowmanysheep?Howwouldyouknowifonewasmissing?”.Theshepherdseemedpuzzledbythequestionandexplained,“Idon’tneedtocountthem,IknoweachoneandIknowthewholeflock.Iwouldknowiftheflockwasnotwhole.”第二十八頁，共33頁。ContextsensitivityAnysingleactfromanysingleperson,putoutofcontext,isdamnable.----ActorKevinSpaceyacceptingthe2000AcademyAwardforBestPerformance.Qualitativeinquiryelevatescontextascriticaltounderstanding.PortraitistSaraLawrence-lightfoot(1997)explainwhyshefindscontext“crucialtodocumentationofhumanexperienceandorganizationalculture”:thesetting—physical,geographic,temporal,historicalcultural,aesthetic—withinwhichactiontakesplace.Contextbecomestheframework,thereferencepoint,themap,theecologicalsphere;itisusedtoplacepeopleandactionintimeandspaceandasaresourceforunderstandingwhattheysayanddo.

第二十九頁，共33頁。Voiceandperspective:reflexivityPhilosopherandtheologianMartinBuber’s(1923)influentialdistinctionbetween“I-it”and“I-Thou”relationship.I-Thouperspectiveacknowledgesthehumanityofbothselfandothersandimpliesrelationship,mutuality,andgenuinedialogue.Self-awarenesscanbeanassetinbothfieldworkandanalysis.Themethodssectionofaqualitativestudyreportsontheresearcher’straining,preparation,fieldworkprocedures,andanalyticalprocesses.Judgmentsaboutthesignificanceoffindingsarethusinevitablyconnectedtotheresearcher’scredibility,competence,thoroughness,andintegrity.Thosejudgments,preciselybecausetheyareacknowledgedasinevitablypersonalandperspectivedependent,atleasttosomeextent,inviteresponseanddialogue,ratherthanjustacceptanceorrejection.Reflexivityhasenteredthequalitativelexiconasawayofemphasizingtheimportanceofself-awareness,political/culturalconsciousness,andownershipofone’sperspective.Itisadeconstructiveexerciseforlocatingtheintersectionsofauthor,other,text,andworld,andforpenetratingtherepresentationalexerciseitself.(Macbeth2001:35)第三十頁，共33