6.Pragmatics 簡明英語語言學(xué) 戴煒棟

Chapter6Pragmatics

Somebasicnotions

Definitionofpragmatics

Pragmaticsvs.Semantics

Context

Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningSpeechacttheory

Austin’smodelofspeechacts

Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts

PrincipleofconversationContents

Somebasicnotions1.

Definitionofpragmatics

Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.i.e.howspeakersuselanguageappropriatelyandeffectivelyinaccordancewithagivencontext.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingandunderstandingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasthestudyofhowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.2.Pragmaticsvs.semanticsSemanticsPragmaticsDefinitionstudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.studyofhowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.Understandingofmeaninginherentpropertyoflanguage,comingfrompurelylinguisticknowledgerealizedinthecourseofcommunication,predictedbylinguisticandcontextualknowledgeDistinctionsbetweensemanticsandpragmaticsWhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.

SemanticsPragmatics

ObjectofstudySentencemeaningindependentofcontext;intra-linguisticrelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandrelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandentitiesintheworld.utterancemeaningdependentofcontext;relationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms.Goalofstudyestablishingtherelationshipsbetweenverbaldescriptionsandstatesofaffairsintheworldastrueornot,regardlessofwhoproducesthatdescription.figuringoutthespeakers’intendedmeaning,theirassumptions,theirpurposesandgoals,andthekindofactionstheyareperformingwhentheyspeak.3.Context

Contextisregardedasconstitutedbyallkindsofknowledgeassumedtobesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.e.g.JohnandCeciliaarewatchingamovieintheopenair.Afterawhile,Ceciliasays:It’scoldinhere.Thepatientislyinginbedwhenthenursecomesin.thewindowisopen.Thepatientsays:It’scoldinhere.Withincontext,thetwoutteranceshavedifferentmeanings.In(a),Ceciliamostprobablysuggests,“l(fā)et’sleavehereandfindawarmerplace”,whilein(b),thepatientissuggestingtothenurse:“Closethewindowplease”.knowledgeaboutthelanguagelinguisticcontextknowledgeaboutthelinguisticenvironmentcommonsensebackgroundknowledgesocial-culturalconventionsspeechconventionstime&spaceofthecommunicationsubjectofcommunicationformalityofcommunicationrelationshipofparticipantsmutualknowledgecontextofsituationextra-linguisticcontextContext

4.Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning

Sentencemeaningisoftenstudiedastheabstract,decontextualized,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication陳述.Utterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orinacontext.Forexample:

ThebagI’mcarryingis

abitheavy.

Grammaticalanalysis:subject,linkverb,complementSemanticanalysis:one-placepredicationBag(Beingheavy)

Pragmaticanalysis:astraightforwardstatementtellingthehearerhisbagisheavy.anindirect,politerequestaskingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.declining謝絕someone’srequestforhelp.Speechacttheory言語行為理論Austin’smodelofspeechacts

SpeechActTheorywasproposedbyJohnAustinandfurtherdevelopedbyJohnSearle.

Theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethingsbutto“dothings”,toperformacts.Actionsperformedthroughutterancesaregenerallycalledspeechacts.

speechactsinclude:statement,pledge保證,question,order,expressinggratitude,apology,congratulation,complaint,etc.Forexample:

Shallwechangeanotherroom?”(suggestion)HowIenvyhim!(envy,jealousy)There’saspiderinyourhair.(warning)I’vegotagun.(threatening)Ineedthesalt.(requesting)AccordingtoAustin,sentencescanbesubdividedintotwocategories.1.Constatives(敘述話語)Asentenceiscapableofexpressingacompletethoughtormeaning.Wecanjudgewhetherthesentenceistrueornotbyitsmeaning.“Theearthisflat.”(=aproposition+astatement)2.Performatives(行為話語)Peopleusesentences(utterance)todothings.Wecanjudgewhetheraperformativeisvalidornotbyfelicity(措辭恰當(dāng)).“I’llcometodinnertomorrow.”(=aproposition+apromise)

Exampleofinfelicity:

anemployee:“Inominateyouthepresident/premier”“Iordertheearthtostopmoving.”AccordingtoAustinthreekindsofactsareperformedsimultaneously.Theyare:Locutionaryact（言內(nèi)行為）Illocutionaryact（言外行為）

Perlocutionaryact（言后行為）Locutionaryact:

theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Illocutionaryact:

theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedwhilesayingsomething.

Perlocutionaryact:

theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceoforthechangebroughtbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Forexample:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactisthathehasutteredallthewords.Theillocutionaryactisthathehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor,ormakingacomplaint,dependingonthecontext.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance:Thehearergetsthespeaker’smessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstoaskhimtoclosethedoor.Whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryacts.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.A:That’sthephone.B:I’mwashingmyhands.A:Okay..2.Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts

AmericanlinguistJohnSearleclassifiedillocutionaryactsintofivegeneralcategories:representatives(闡述類)

directives(指令類)

commissives(承諾類)

expressives(表達(dá)類)

declaratives(宣告類)Representatives:

makeastatementorgiveadescriptionwhichthespeakerbelievestobetrue.(stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing)e.g.

(Iswear)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.(Istate)theearthisaglobe.Directives:

getthehearertodosomething.(inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,ordering).e.g.Openthedoor!(ordering)Yourmoneyoryourlife?(threatening)Don’tyouthinkit’sabitstuffyhere?Commissives:committodosomething.(promising,undertaking,vowing)e.g.Ipromisetocome.I’llbringthebookwithoutfail.Expressives:expressone’sfeelingsorattitudestowardsaffairs.(apologizing,thanking,congratulating)e.g.I’msorryforthemessIhavemade.It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.

Declarations:bringaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.

e.g.

InamethisshipElizabeth.Ideclarethemeetingopen.IappointyouChairmanofthecommittee.Ifireyou.PrincipleofconversationCo-operativePrinciple(合作原則)AmericanphilosopherPaulGriceproposedCo-operativePrinciple(CP):“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged”.(在言語產(chǎn)生作出表述時(shí)，要使該表述符合此階段話語交流所接受的目的或方向要求)Thatis,weassumethatinaconversationtheparticipantswillcooperatewitheachotherwhenmakingtheircontributions.Theprincipleisillustratedwithitsfourmaxims:Quantitymaxim1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange)2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Qualitymaxim1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.RelationmaximMakesurewhatyousayisrelevanttotheconversationMannermaxim1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.2.Avoidambiguity.3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity)4.Beorderly.ConversationalImplicature

會(huì)話含義Forvariousreasonsthesemaximsareoftenviolated.Mostoftheseviolationsgiveriseto“conversationalimplicatures”andourlanguagebecomesindirect.Conversationalimplicature:

theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsoftheCP.Forexample:A:DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?B:Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.Bviolatesthe1stQuantitymaxim.Theimplicatureis“IdonotwishtotellyouwhereMr.Xlives”.Boysareboys.Wariswar.Theyareextremeexamplesinwhichthe1stQuantitymaximisviolated.Theimplicaturesmaybe:“Boysarenaughtyandmischievousbynature”and“It’snouselamentingthetragediesofwar.Terriblethingsalwayshappeninit.That’sitsnature”.A:Where’sX?B:He’sgonetothelibrary.Hesaidsowhenheleft.ThesecondQuantitymaximisviolated.Inasense,thefirstpartofB’s

answerisenoughforA’squestion.Butbyaddingthe2ndpart,thespeakermayimpicatethatheisnotsurewhetherXhasreallygonetothelibrary.A:Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.The1stQualitymaximisviolated.Theimplicatureis:“Idonotwanttogotoyourpartytonight”.Heismadeofiron.Wewillinterpretitasametaphor,meaningthismanhasacharacterlikeiron.Incaseswhenwedonothaveadequateevidenceswewillusuallyqualifyourutterancesby“Itmaybethecasethat…”or“I’mnotsurebut…”.A:Thehostessisanawfulbore,don’tyouthink?B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?Bviolatedthemaximofrelation.Theimplicatureis“Idon’twishtotalkaboutthehostessinsucharudemanner”.A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-M.Bviolatestheobscurityavoidancemaxim.Bisbeingdeliberatelyobscure,sothatthechildrenwon’tunderstandwhatthey’retalkingabout.A:MissXsang“Homesweethome”.B:MissXproducedaseriesofsoundsthatcorrespondedcloselywiththescore(樂譜)of“Homesweethome”.Bviolatesthebrieftymaxim.TheprolixityimplicatesthatMissX’sperformanceissopoorthattheword“sing”cannotbeapplied.2.PolitenessInthestudyoflinguisticpoliteness,themostrelevantconceptis‘face’,yourface,inpragmatics,isyourpublicself-image.Thisistheemotionalandsocialsenseofselfthateverypersonhasandexpectseveryoneelsetorecognize.Politenessisshowingawarenessofanotherperson’sface.Ifyousaysomethingthatrepresentsathreattoanotherperson’sself-image,thatiscalledaface-threateningact.e.g.Givemethatsalt!Wheneveryousaysomethingthatlessonsthepossiblethreattoanother’sface,it’scalledaface-savingact.e.g.Couldyoupassmethatpaper,please?Face-threateningactandface-savingactNegativefaceandpositivefaceYournegativefaceistheneedtobeindependentandtohavefreedomfromimposition.e.g.I’msorrytobotheryou…Iknowyouarebusy,but…Yourpositivefaceisyourneedtobeconnectedto,tobelongto,ortobeamemberofthegroup.e.g.Let’sdothistogether…YouandIhavethesameproblem,so…Toemphasizeaperson’spositivefaceToemphasizeaperson’sNegativeface1.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsisthenotionof________（2006）

A.reference

B.meaning

C.antonymy

D.context2.Whenaspeakerexpresseshisintentionofspeaking,suchasaskingsomeonetoopenthewindow,heisperforming(2009)

A.anillocutionaryact.B.aperlocutionaryact.C.alocutionaryact.D.noneoftheabove.3.Thespeechacttheorywasfirstputforwardby___.（2005）A.JohnSearle B.JohnAustin C.NoamChomsky D.M.A.K.Halliday4.Thesentence“Closeyourbooksandlistentomecarefully!”performsa(n)_____function.(2013)A.interrogativeB.informativeC.performativeD.directiveDABD7.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaning_________isconsidered.

A.referenceB.speechact

C.practicalusageD.context8.Asentence