ParadigmsTheoryandSocialResearch專題培訓(xùn)課件

Paradigms,Theory,andSocialResearch

TheoryTheoriesseektoprovidelogicalexplanations.Threefunctions:Preventourbeingtakeninbyflukes

預(yù)防我們的僥幸心理Makesenseofobservedpatternsinawaythatcansuggestotherpossibilities

合理解釋觀察到的模式，并指出更多的可能性Shapeanddirectresearchefforts

建立研究的形式和方向SocialScienceParadigmsParadigms:thefundamentalmodelsorframesofreferenceweusetoorganizeourobservationsandreasoningParadigmsareoftendifficulttorecognizeassuchtheories,becausetheyaresoimplicit,assumed,takenforgranted.Theyaremorelike‘thewaythingsare’(事物存在的方式)thanlikeonepossiblepointofviewamongmany.E.g.HumanRight?Whatisit?Paradigmsplayafundamentalroleinsciencejustastheydothedailylife.Inthesocialscience,theoreticalparadigmsmaygainorlosepopularity,buttheyareseldomdiscardedaltogether.ParadigmsofsocialsciencesofferavarietyofviewsSocialScienceParadigmsSocialScienceParadigmsParadigmsareneithertruenorfalse;aswayoflooking,theyareonlymoreorlessusefulNaturalScienceParadigmsThesuccessionfromoneparadigmtoanotherrepresentsprogressfromafalseviewtoatrueone.SomeSocialScienceParadigmsMacro-theory&Micro-theory

宏觀與微觀理論Earlypositivism早期實(shí)證主義SocialDarwinism社會達(dá)爾文主義ConflictParadigm沖突范式SymbolicInteractionism符號互動主義Ethnomethodology常人方法論StructuralFunctionalism結(jié)構(gòu)功能主義FeministParadigm女性主義范式CriticalRaceTheory批判種族理論RationalObjectivityReconsidered再論理性的客觀性SomeSocialScienceParadigmsMacro-theoryMacro-theory:aimedatunderstandingthe‘bigpicture’ofinstitutionsamongsocietiesItdealswithlarge,aggregateentitiesofsocietyorevenwholesocietiesE.g.Marx’sexaminationoftheclassstruggle,internationalrelationsMicro-theoryMicro-theory:aimedatunderstandingsociallifeattheintimatelevelofindividuals,smallgroups,andtheirinteractions（whatgoesonbetweenhumans）.E.g.Examiningdating,theinteractionbetweenteachersandstudentsEarlyPositivism

PhilosopherAugusteComtecoinedthetermofsociologiesin18221300D.C.

“theologicalstage”societysimplywas.religiousparadigms/God’swillDuringthenext500years“metaphysicalstage”形而上學(xué)階段Comtelaunchedthe3rdstage knowledgeisbasedonobservationsthroughthe5sensesComteidentifiedsocietyasaphenomenonthatcanbestudiedscientificallySciencewouldreplacereligionandmetaphysics(玄學(xué))bybasingknowledgeonobservationsthroughthefivesensesratherthanonbelieforlogiconeInComte’sview,thatsocietycouldbestudiedscientificallyformedthefoundationforsubsequentdevelopmentofthesocialscience.Comtecoinedthetermpositivism實(shí)證主義todescribethisscientificapproachEarlyPositivismSocialDarwinism

In1858,Darwinpublished‘OntheOriginofSpecies’(物種起源).Thetheorystatesthatasaspeciescopedwithitsenvironment,thoseindividualsmostsuitedtosuccesswouldbethemostlikelytosurvivelongenoughtoreproduce.Thoselesswellsuitedwouldbeperish.OvertimesurvivorwouldcometodominatethespeciesSocialDarwinismHerbertSpencer(U.K.1820-1903):societywasgettingbetterandbetter.HisnativeEnglandhadprofitedgreatlyfromthedevelopmentofindustrialcapitalism.HepreferredfreecompetitionHehavecoinedthephrase“thesurvivalofthefittest”.PopularviewinSpencer’stime“socialDarwinism”or“socialevolution”Macro-theoreticalissuesConflictParadigmKarlMarxsuggestedsocialbehaviourcouldbestbeseenasaprocessofconflict:theattempttodominateothersandtoavoidbeingdominatedMarxfocusedprimarilyonthestruggleamongeconomicclassesMarx’sinterestinthistopicdidnotendwithanalyticalstudy;hewasalsoideologicallycommittedtorestructuringeconomicrelationstoendoftheoppressionheobservedAlthoughtheconflictparadigmoftenfocusesonclass,gender,andethnicstruggle,itwouldbeappropriatetoapplyitwheneverdifferentgroupshavecompetinginterestsE.g.students–faculty–administrativerelationsMacro-theoreticalissuesSymbolicInteractionismGeorgSimmelwasmoreinterestedinhowindividualsinteractedwithoneanother.Itismicroterm.Hestudieddyadsandtriads.CharlesHortonCooley’s ‘primarygroup(初級群體-有歸屬感群體)’ ‘looking-glassself’(weformbylookingintothereactionsofpeoplearoundus)HerbertMeademphasizedtheimportanceofourhumanabilityto‘taketheroleoftheothers’,imaginehowothersfeelMeadfelt,revolvedaroundtheprocessofindividualsreachingcommonunderstandingthroughtheuseoflanguageandothersuchsystem,hencethetermsymbolicinteractionismEthnomethodology(常人方法論)SocialscientificparadigmsemphasizetheimpactofsocialstructureonhumanbehaviourHaroldGarfinkelclaimsthatpeoplearecontinuallycreatingsocialstructurethroughtheiractionsandinteractions–creatingtheirrealitiesGarfinkelsuggestedeveryoneisactinglikeasocialscientist,hence,theterm‘ethonmethodology’ormethodologyofpeopleStructuralFunctionalism

AlsoknownassocialsystemtheoryIthasgrownoutofanotionintroducedbyComteandSpencer:asocietyentity,suchasanorganisationorawholesociety,canbeviewedasanorganism(有機(jī)體)Theviewofsocietyasasocialsystemthen,looksforthe‘functions’servedbyitsvariouscomponents.FeministParadigmFeministtheoryandresearchhavefocusedongenderdifferencesandhowtheyrelatetotherestofsocialorganisationThelinesofinquiryhavedrawnattentiontotheoppressionofwomeninmanysocieties,whichinturnhasshedlightonoppressiongenerallyFeministParadigmTotryoutfeministparadigms,youmightwanttoexplorewhetherdiscriminationagainstwomenexistsatyourcollegeoruniversity.TopadministrativepositionsSecretarialandclericalpositionsMen’sandwomen’ssportssupportedequallyCriticalRaceTheory

Therootsofcriticalracetheoryaregenerallyassociatedwiththecivilrightsmovementofthemid1950sandrace-relatedlegislationofthe1960s.Mid1970s,CivilrightsactivistsandsocialscientistsbeganthecodificationofaparadigmbasedonraceawarenessandacommitmenttoracialjusticeMuchofthecontemporaryscholarshipincriticalracetheoryhastodowiththeroleofraceinpoliticsandgovernmentRationalObjectivityReconsideredCaseofAschExperimentThecontemporarychallengetopositivismgoesbeyondthequestionofwhetherpeoplebehaverationally?XABC

ElementsofSocialTheoryObservation(basis)Seeing,hearing,touchingFactSomephenomenonthathasbeenobservedLaws定律(Principles規(guī)則)UniversalgeneralizationsaboutclassesoffactsTrulyuniversal,notmerelyaccidentalpatternsfoundamongaspecificsetoffactsElementsofSocialTheoryConceptAbstractelementsrepresentingclassesofphenomenawithinthefieldofstudy

代表研究領(lǐng)域中各類現(xiàn)象的抽象元素VariableLogicalgroupingofattributesPropositions(命題)Hypothesis(假設(shè))Aspecifiedtestableexpectationaboutempiricalrealitythatfollowsfromamoregeneralproposition.

兩個變量或者多個變量之間關(guān)系的嘗試性陳述如：結(jié)婚年齡和離婚率的問題假設(shè)：結(jié)婚年齡越小，離婚率越高。兩個變量的關(guān)系：

結(jié)婚的年齡和離婚率由于假設(shè)通常是人定的，因而如有證據(jù)表明它是不對的，他就可以被摒棄LogicalSystemsRevisitedThetraditionalModelofScience:TheoryOperationalizationSciencedependsonmeasurableobservationSpecifyingtheexactoperationsinvolvedinmeasuringavariableObservationLogicalSystemsTheDeductiveReasoningThetraditionalmodelofsciencejustdescribedisaniceexampleofdeductivereasoning: fromageneraltheoreticalunderstanding,theresearcherderives(deduces)anexpectationandfinallyatestablehypothesis.DeductiveTheoryConstruction

建構(gòu)演繹式理論GettingStartedConstructingYourTheory1.Specifythetopic2.Specifytherangeofphenomenayourtheoryaddress.Willyourtheoryapplytoallofhumansociallife?3.Identifyandspecifyyourmajorconceptsandvariables4.Findoutwhatisknown(propositions)abouttherelationshipsamongthosevariables5.Reasonlogicalfromthosepropositionstothespecifictopicyouexamining例《我國電視廣告中的女性形象的研究報告》提出研究課題理論依據(jù)社會性別理論：男權(quán)文化通過大眾傳媒參與并完成了對女性形象的塑造傳播學(xué)理論：大眾媒介具有建構(gòu)性別意義或模式的功能假設(shè)考察我國電視廣告中是否存在性別歧視如果存在性別歧視，其主要特征是什么如果存在性別歧視，分析廣告，說明這類廣告的性質(zhì)InductiveTheoryConstruction

歸納法建構(gòu)理論Quiteoftensocialscientistsbeginconstructingatheorythroughtheinductivemethodbyfirstobse