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TheGeologicHistoryoftheIn1970geologistsKennethJ.HsuandWilliamB.F.RyanwerecollectingresearchdatawhileaboardtheoceanographicresearchvesselGlomarChallenger.AnobjectiveofthisparticularcruisewastoinvestigatetheflooroftheMediterraneanandtoresolvequestionsaboutitsgeologichistory.Onequestionwasrelatedtoevidencethattheinvertebratefauna(animalswithoutspines)oftheMediterraneanhadchangedabruptlyabout6millionyearsago.Mostoftheolderorganismswerenearlywipedout,althoughafewhardyspeciessurvived.AfewmanagedtomigrateintotheAtlantic.Somewhatlater,themigrantsreturned,bringingnewspecieswiththem.WhydidthenearextinctionandmigrationsAnothertaskfortheGlomarChallenger’sscientistswastotrytodeterminetheoriginofthedomelikemassesburieddeepbeneaththeMediterraneanseafloor.Thesestructureshadbeendetectedyearsearlierbyecho-soundinginstruments,buttheyhadneverbeenpenetratedinthecourseofdrilling.WeretheysaltdomessuchasarecommonalongtheUnitedStatesGulfCoast,andifso,whyshouldtherehavebeensomuchsolidcrystallinesaltbeneaththeflooroftheMediterranean?Withquestionsuchastheseclearlybeforethem,thescientistsaboardtheGlomarChallengerprocessedtotheMediterraneantosearchfortheanswers.OnAugust23,1970,theyrecoveredasample.Thesampleconsistedofpebblesofhardenedsedimentthathadoncebeensoft,deep-seamud,aswellasgranulesofgypsumandfragmentsofvolcanicrock.Notasinglepebblewasfoundthatmighthaveindicatedthatthepebblescamefromthenearbycontinent.Inthedaysfollowing,samplesofsolidgypsumwererepeatedlybroughtondeckasdrillingoperationspenetratedtheseafloor.Furthermore,thegypsumwasfoundtopossesspeculiaritiesofcompositionandstructurethatsuggestedithadformedondesertflats.Sedimentaboveandbelowthegypsumlayercontainedtinymarinefossils,indicatingopen-oceanconditions.AstheydrilledintothecentralanddeepestpartoftheMediterraneanbasin,thescientiststooksolid,shiny,crystallinesaltfromthecorebarrel.InterbeddedwiththesaltwerethinlayersofwhatappearedtobewindblownThetimehadcometoformulateahypothesis.Theinvestigatorstheorizedthatabout20millionyearsago,theMediterraneanwasabroadseawaylinkedtotheAtlanticbytwonarrowstraits.Crustalmovementsclosedthestraits,andthelandlockedMediterraneanbegantoevaporate.Increasingsalinitycausedbytheevaporationresultedintheexterminationofscoresofinvertebratespecies.Onlyafeworganismsespeciallytolerantofverysaltyconditionsremained.Asevaporation,theremainingbrine(saltwater)becamesodensethatthecalciumsulfateofthehardlayerwasprecipitated.Inthecentraldeeperpartofthebasin,thelastofthebrineevaporatedtoprecipitatemoresolublesodiumchloride(salt).Later,undertheweightofoverlyingsediments,thissaltflowedsticallyupwardtoformsaltdomes.Beforethishappened,however,theMediterraneanwasavastdesert3,000metersdeep.Then,about5.5millionyearsagocamethedeluge.Asaresultofcrustaladjustmentsandfaulting,theStraitofGibraltar,wheretheMediterraneannowconnectstotheAtlantic,opened,andwatercascadedspectacularlybackintotheMediterranean.Turbulentwaterstoreintothehardenedsaltflats,brokethemup,andgroundthemintothepebblesobservedinthefirstsampletakenbytheChallenger.Asthebasinwasrefilled,normalmarineorganismsreturned.Soonlayerofoceanicoozebegantoaccumulateabovetheoldhardlayer.Thesaltandgypsum,thefaunalchanges,andtheunusualgravelprovidedabundantevidencethattheMediterraneanwasonceadesert.gypsum:amineralmadeofcalciumsulfateand參考譯文

1970年，地理學家KennethJ.Hsu和WilliamB.F.Ryan曾在海洋船GlomarChallenger號上致力收集調(diào)研資料。這次特別巡航的一個目的是地中海的地（沒有脊椎的動物）600百萬年前發(fā)生劇變的。大部分古老的生物都幾乎滅動物又回來了，并帶回來新的物種。為什么這最近的動物和遷移會發(fā)生呢？GlomarChallenger號上科學家們的另一個任務(wù)是嘗試去確定深埋在地中海海底 GlomarChallenger號前往地中海尋找答案。1970823日，他們恢復(fù)了一個樣本。這個樣本由石膏鵝卵石的大陸。接下來的日子里，隨著海底巖層實驗的進行，石膏固體樣本被不斷時間明確地闡明了一個假設(shè)。者們構(gòu)思了這樣的理論：大約2000萬年前，余鹽水的持續(xù)蒸發(fā)形成的可溶的氯化鈉（鹽。后來，在上層沉淀物的重壓3000米深的大沙論提供了充分的。AncientRomeandThereisaqualityofcohesivenessabouttheRomanworldthatappliedneithertoGreecenorperhapstoanyothercivilization,ancientormodern.LikethestoneofRomanwall,whichwereheldtogetherbothbytheregularityofthedesignandbythatpeculiarlypowerfulRomancement,sothevariouspartsoftheRomanrealmwerebondedintoamassive,monolithicentitybyphysical,organizational,andpsychologicalcontrols.Thephysicalbondsincludedthenetworkofmilitarygarrisons,whichwerestationedineveryprovince,andthenetworkofstone-builtroadsthatlinkedtheprovinceswithRome.Theorganizationalbondswerebasedonthecommonprinciplesoflawandadministrationandontheuniversalarmyofofficialswhoen dcommonstandardsofconduct.Thepsychologicalcontrolswerebuiltonfearandpunishment—ontheabsolutecertaintythatanyoneoranythingthatthreatenedtheauthorityofRomewouldbeutterlydestroyed.ThesourceofRomanobsessionwithunityandcohesionmaywellhavelaininthepatternofRome’searlydevelopment.WhereasGreecehadgrownfromscoresofscatteredcities,Romegrewfromonesingleorganism.WhiletheGreekworldhadexpandedalongtheMediterraneanseaslanes,theRomanworldwasassembledbyterritorialconquest.Ofcourse,thecontrastisnotquitesostark:inAlexandertheGreattheGreekshadfoundthegreatestterritorialconquerorofalltime;andtheRomans,oncetheymovedoutsideItaly,didnotfailtolearnthelessonsofseapower.Yettheessentialdifferenceisundeniable.ThekeytotheGreekworldlayinhigh-poweredships;thekeytoRomanpowerlayinitsmarchinglegions.TheGreekswereweddedtothesea;theRomans,totheland.TheGreekwasasailoratheart;theRoman,alandsman.Certainly,intryingtoexintheRomanphenomenon,onewouldhavetocegreatemphasisonthisalmostinstinctfortheterritorialimperative.Romanprioritieslayintheorganization,exploitation,anddefenseoftheirterritory.InallprobabilityitwasthefertileinofLatium,wheretheLatinswhofoundedRomeoriginated,thatcreatedthehabitsandskillsoflandedsettlement,landedproperty,landedeconomy,landedadministration,andaland-basedsociety.FromthisarosetheRomangeniusformilitaryorganizationandorderlyernment.Inturn,adeepattaenttotheland,andtothestabilitywhichrurallifeengenders,fosteredtheRomanvirtues:gravitas,asenseofresponsibility,peitas,asenseofdevotiontofamilyandcountry,andiustitia,asenseofthenaturalorder.ModernattitudestoRomancivilizationrangefromtheinfiniyimpressedtothethoroughlydisgusted.Asalways,therearethepowerworshippers,especiallyamonghistorians,whoarepredisposedtoadmirewhateverisstrong,whofeelmoreattractedtothemightofRomethantothesubtletyofGreece.Atthesametime,thereisasolidbodyofopinionthatdislikesRome.Formany,RomeisatbesttheimitatorandthecontinuatorofGreeceonalargerscale.Greekcivilizationhadquality;Rome,merety.Greecewasoriginal;Rome,derivative.Greecehadstyle;Romehadmoney.Greecewastheinventor;Rome,theresearchanddevelopmentdivision.SuchindeedwastheopinionofsomeofthemoreinlectualRomans.“HadtheGreeksheldnoveltyinsuchdisdainaswe,”askedHoraceinhisepistle,“whatworkofancientdatewouldnowRome’sdebttoGreecewasenormous.TheRomansadoptedGreekreligionandmoralphilosophy.Inli ture,GreekwriterswereconsciouslyusedasmodelsbytheirLatinsuccessors.ItwasabsoluyacceptedthataneducatedRomanshouldbefluentinGreek.Inspeculativephilosophyandthesciences,theRomansmadevirtuallynoadvanceonearlyachievements.YetitwouldbewrongtosuggestthatRomewassomehowajuniorpartnerinGreco-Romancivilization.TheRomangeniuswasprojectedintonewspheres—especiallyintothoseoflaw,militaryorganization,administration,andengineering.Moreover,thetensionsthatarosewithintheRomanstateproduced ryandicsensibilitiesofthehighestorder.ItwasnoaccidentthatmanyleadingRomansoldiersandstatesmenwerewritersofhighcaliber.參考譯文

的束縛包括駐扎在每個省的戍衛(wèi)軍組成的網(wǎng)絡(luò)和每個省與羅馬的、用石頭鋪事，只要到羅馬的，都終將被摧毀。而羅馬則通過的占領(lǐng)而壯大。當然，他們的對比也不是那么的絕對：在區(qū)別是不容否認的。希臘世界的關(guān)鍵是強大的船隊，而羅馬的關(guān)鍵則是他們神；以及iustitia，一種對自然秩序的使命。道嗎？”Horace在他的信件中問道“古時候的什么工作現(xiàn)在還存在呢？”Agriculture,Iron,andtheBantuThereisevidenceofagricultureinAfricapriorto3000B.C.Itmayhavedevelopedindependently,butmanyscholarsbelievethatthespreadofagricultureandironthroughoutAfricalinkedittothemajorcentersoftheNearEastandMediterraneanworld.ThedryingupofwhatisnowtheSaharadeserthadpushedmanypeoplestothesouthintosub-SaharaAfrica.Thesepeoplessettledatfirstinscatteredhunting-and-gatheringbands,althoughinsomecesnearlakesandrivers,peoplewhofished,withamoresecurefoodsupply,livedinlargerpopulationconcentrations.AgricultureseemstohavereachedthesepeoplefromtheNearEast,sincethefirstdomesticatedcropsweremilletsandsorghumswhoseoriginsarenotAfricanbutwestAsian.Oncetheideaofntingdiffused,Africansbegantodeveloptheirowncrops,suchascertainvarietiesofrice,andtheydemonstratedareceptivenesstonewimports.TheproposedareasofthedomesticationofAfricancropslieinabandthatextendsfromEthiopiaacrosssouthernSudantoWestAfrica.Subsequently,othercrops,suchasbananas,wereintroducedfromSoutheastAsia.LivestockalsocamefromoutsideAfrica.CattlewereintroducedfromAsia,asprobablyweredomesticsheepandgoats.HorseswereapparentlyintroducedbytheHyksosinvadersofEgypt(1780-1560B.C.)andthenspreadacrosstheSudantoWestAfrica.RockpaintingsintheSaharaindicatethathorsesandchariotswereusedtotraversethedesertandthatby300-200B.C.,thereweretraderoutesacrosstheSahara.HorseswereadoptedbypeoplesoftheWestAfricansavannah,andlatertheirpowerfulcavalrysallowedthemtocarveoutlargeempires.Finally,thecamelwasintroducedaroundthefirstcenturyA.D.Thiswasanimportantinnovation,becausethecamel’sabilitiestothriveinharshdesertconditionsandtocarrylargeloadscheaplymadeitaneffectiveandefficientmeansoftransportation.Thecameltransformedthedesertfromabarrierintoastilldifficult,butmoreaccessible,routeoftradeandcommunication.IroncamefromWestAsia,althoughitsroutesofdiffusionweresomewhatdifferentthanthoseofagriculture.MostofAfricapresentsacuriouscaseinwhichsocietiesmoveddirectlyfromatechnologyofstonetoironwithoutpassingthroughtheintermediatestageofcopperorbronzemetallurgy,althoughsomeearlycopper-workingsiteshavebeenfoundinWestAfrica.KnowledgeofironmakingpenetratedintotheandsavannahsofWestAfricaatroughlythesametimethatironmakingwasreachingEurope.EvidenceofironmakinghasbeenfoundinNigeria,Ghana,andMali.ThistechnologicalshiftcauseprofoundchangesinthecomplexityofAfricanIronrepresentedpower.InWestAfricatheblacksmithwhomadetoolsandweaponshadanimportantceinsociety,oftenwithspecialreligiouspowersandfunctions.Ironhoes,whichmadethelandmoreproductive,andironweapons,whichmadethewarriormorepowerful,hadsymbolicmeaninginanumberofWestAfricasocieties.Thosewhoknewthesecretsofmakingirongainedritualandsometimespoliticalpower.UnlikeintheAmericas,wheremetallurgywasaverylateandlimiteddevelopment,Africanshadironfromarelativelyearlydate,develoingeniousfurnacestoproducethehighheatneededforproductionandto