美國部分參考答案

UnitOne：TheCountry

HowhasclimateaffectedtheSouthernwayoflife?WhyareSoutherners,ingeneral,soconservative?

KeyPoints:

TheSouthhasmildwintersandhotsummers,makingitanidealplaceforagriculturalindustry.

Foralongtime,southernagriculturewascharacterizedbyplantationeconomy,controlledbyslave-ownersandlandedgentryclass,whosevestedinterestinplantationeconomymadethemconservativevirtuallyineveryaspect,politically,economicallyandsocially.

Historically,theSouthwashierarchicalinitssocialstructure,givingrisetoacastesystembasedonblacksalvesandindenturedservants,withbigplantationownerssittingatthetop.

TheSouthernslow-pacedagriculturallifehasproducedwhatpeopletherecall“theSouthernwayoflife”,whichinprinciple,cherishesruralvirtues,emphasizescommunitylife,suspectsmodernization,andrejectsmoralsins..

Traditionally,NewEnglandershavealwaysattachedgreatimportancetoeducation.Whyisthatandwhataretheimplications?

KeyPoints:

EducationisimportanttoPuritansasawayofseekingtruthfromtheBible.Itistrueforbothclergymenandlaymen.

Educationisimportanttothecultivationofrepublicanvirtuesforpublic-mindedNewEnglanders,wholaunchedthepublicschoolmovementasearlyastheearly19thcentury.

Educationisbelievedtobethebestvehicleforcommonpeopletorealizetheirpotentialandultimatelytheirpersonalworth.Beingaplacethatstressesequalityanddemocracy(asreflectedinitstownmeetingandcongregationalism),NewEnglandhasalwaysledthenationinmakingeducationavailabletoallpeopleacrosstheboard.

Educationhasdevelopedrapidlyintheareaatalllevels,fromelementary-andsecondary-leveleducationtocollegeanduniversityeducation,andfrompublictoprivateeducation.

UnitTwo:History

ThroughoutAmericanhistorytherehavebeenmanymovements,suchastheTemperanceMovement,Anti-slaveryMovement,ProgressiveMovement,CivilRightsMovement,andFeministMovement.PickoneofthemanddiscussitssignificanceinU.S.history.

KeyPoints:(answerscanbefoundontheInterneteasily)

TheProgressiveMovementwasanefforttocuremanyoftheillsofAmericansocietythathaddevelopedduringthegreatspurtofindustrialgrowthinthelastquarterofthe19thcentury.Thefrontierhadbeentamed,greatcitiesandbusinessesdeveloped,andanoverseasempireestablished,butnotallcitizenssharedinthenewwealth,prestige,andoptimism.Progressivismwasrootedinthebelief,certainlynotsharedbyall,thatmanwascapableofimprovingthelotofallwithinsociety.Assuch,itwasarejectionofSocialDarwinismpositiontakenbymanyoftherichandpowerfulfiguresoftheday.Progressivismwasalsoimbuedwithstrongpoliticalovertonesandrejectedthechurchasthedrivingforceforchange.Specificgoalsincluded:Thedesiretoremovecorruptionandundueinfluencefromgovernmentthroughthetamingofbossesandpoliticalmachines;theefforttoincludemorepeoplemoredirectlyinthepoliticalprocess;theconvictionthatgovernmentmustplayaroletosolvesocialproblemsandestablishfairnessineconomicmatters.

ThesuccessofProgressivismowedmuchtopublicitygeneratedbythemuckrakerswriterswhodetailedthehorrorsofpoverty,urbanslums,dangerousfactoryconditions,andchildlabor,amongahostofotherills.Thesuccessesweremany,beginningwiththeInterstateCommerceAct(1887)andtheShermanAntitrustAct(1890).Progressivesneverspokewithonemindanddifferedsharplyoverthemosteffectivemeanstodealwiththeillsgeneratedbythetrusts;somefavoredanactivistapproachtotrust-busting,otherspreferredaregulatoryapproach.TheProgressivespiritalsowasevidentinnewamendmentsaddedtotheConstitution,whichprovidedforanewmeanstoelectsenators,protectsocietythroughprohibitionandextendsuffragetowomen.Urbanproblemswereaddressedbyprofessionalsocialworkerswhooperatedsettlementhousesasameanstoprotectandimprovetheprospectsofthepoor.However,effortstoplacelimitationsonchildlaborwereroutinelythwartedbythecourts.TheneedsofblackssandNativeAmericanswerepoorlyservedorservednotatall—amajorshortcomingoftheProgressiveMovement.

Progressivereformswerecarriedoutnotonlyonthenationallevel,butinthestatesandmunicipalitiesofthecountryaswell.ProminentgovernorsdevotedtochangeincludedRobertM.LaFolletteofWisconsinandHiramJohnsonofCalifornia.

Suchreformsasthedirectprimary,secretballot,andtheinitiativereferendum,andrecallwereeffected.Localgovernmentswerestrengthenedbythewidespreaduseoftrainedprofessionals,particularlywiththecitymanagersystemreplacingtheall-too-frequentlycorruptmayoralsystem.

Overthepastquarterofacentury,theUnitedStatesissaidtobeengagedina“CultureWar”.Whataretheissuesthiswarisabout?WhatdoesthewarsaytousaboutcontemporaryAmericansociety?

KeyPoints(answercanbeeasilyfoundontheInternet)

Theexpressioncameintousein1991intheUnitedStateswiththepublicationofCultureWars:TheStruggletoDefineAmericabyJamesDavisonHunter,asociologistattheUniversityofVirginia.Init,HunterdescribedwhathesawasadramaticrealignmentandpolarizationthathadtransformedAmericanpoliticsandculture..

Hearguedthatonanincreasingnumberof"hot-button"definingissues—abortion,gunpolitics,separationofchurchandstate,privacy,recreationaldruguse,homosexuality,censorshipissues—therehadcometobetwodefinablepolarities.Furthermore,itwasnotjustthattherewereanumberofdivisiveissues,butthatsocietyhaddividedalongessentiallythesamelinesoneachoftheseissues,soastoconstitutetwowarringgroups,definedprimarilynotbynominalreligion,ethnicity,socialclass,orevenpoliticalaffiliation,butratherbyideologicalworldviews..

Huntercharacterizedthispolarityasstemmingfromoppositeimpulses,towardwhathereferstoasProgressivismandOrthodoxy.Thedichotomyhasbeenadoptedwithvaryinglabels,including,forexample,byFOXNewscommentatorBillO’Reillywhoemphasizesdifferencesbetween"Secular-Progressives"and"Traditionalists".

In1990paleoconservativecommentatorPatBuchananmountedacampaignfortheRepublicannominationforPresidentoftheUnitedStatesagainstincumbentGeorgeH.W.Bushin1992.Hereceivedaprimetimespeechslotatthe1992RepublicanNationalConvention,whichissometimesdubbedthe"'culturewar'speech".

Duringhisspeech,hesaid:"ThereisareligiouswargoingoninourcountryforthesoulofAmerica.Itisaculturalwar,ascriticaltothekindofnationwewillonedaybeaswastheColdWaritself."Inadditiontocriticizing"environmentalextremists"and"radicalfeminism,"hesaidpublicmoralitywasadefiningissue:

Theagenda[Bill]Clintonand[Hillary]ClintonwouldimposeonAmerica—abortionondemand,alitmustestfortheSupremeCourt,homosexualrights,discriminationagainstreligiousschools,womenincombat—that'schange,allright.ButitisnotthekindofchangeAmericawants.ItisnotthekindofchangeAmericaneeds.AnditisnotthekindofchangewecantolerateinanationthatwestillcallGod'scountry.

Amonthlater,Buchananelaboratedthatthisconflictwasaboutpoweroversociety'sdefinitionofrightandwrong.Henamedabortion,sexualorientationandpopularcultureasmajorfronts–andmentionedothercontroversies,includingclashesovertheConfederateFlag,Christmasandtaxpayer-fundedart.HealsosaidthatthenegativeattentionhistalkofaculturewarreceivedwasitselfevidenceofAmerica’spolarization.

WhenBuchananranforPresidentin1996,hepromisedtofightfortheconservativesideoftheculturewar:

IwillusethebullypulpitofthePresidencyoftheUnitedStates,tothefullextentofmypowerandability,todefendAmericantraditionsandthevaluesoffaith,family,andcountry,fromanyandalldirections.And,together,wewillchasethepurveyorsofsexandviolencebackbeneaththerockswhencetheycame.

Inacolumn,Pat

\o"PatBuchanan"

BuchanansaidtheculturewarhadreignitedandthatAmericansnolongerinhabitedthesamemoraluniverse.Hegavesuchexamplesasgaycivilunions,the"crudityoftheMTVcrowd,"andthecontroversysurroundingMelGilbson’sfilm,ThePassionoftheChrist.

Theculturewardemonstratesthatoversuchissuesasabortion,sexualorientation,guncontrol,privacy,affirmativeaction,separationofchurchandsate,censorship,anddrugabusetherearetwocultural-value-basedgroupspittingoneagainsttheother.Onerepresentsthetraditionalvaluesystem,especiallyWASPculture,theother,moreliberalvaluesystem,particularlymulticulturalism.

UnitThree:TheAmericaIdentity

1.AsawayofinterpretingAmericanidentity,peopleoftenlikenAmericansocietytoa“meltingpot”,a“saladbowl”ora“pizza”.Ofthesethreemetaphors,whichonedoyouthinkcapturestheessenceofAmericannationalcharacterbest?

KeyPoints(answercanbefoundontheInternet)

Amalgamationofmaterialsistheprocessbywhichmetalsareexposedtoextremelyhighheatuntiltheymeldintoanewcompound.Withpeople,thismetaphorofameltingpothaslongbeenappliedtoculturalintegration,especiallyinthecaseinformingtheAmericannation.Alookintothebackgroundofthissocialtheorywillhelpusorientourselvesinthisdebate.Thefoundationofthistheorywasperhapsfirstexplainedin1782byaFrenchimmigrantnamedJ.HectordeCrevecoeur,whoenvisionedAmericabecominganationcomprisedofacompletelynewracethatwouldeventuallyaffectchangestotheworldscenethroughitslabourforceanditssubsequentposterity.ThemetaphorwasspecificallypopularizedinaplaybyIsraelZangwill,entitled"TheMeltingPot,"whichopenedinWashingtonin1908,atimewhenAmericanimmigrationwasboomingfromNorth-westernEurope(Booth).Thistheorylaterappropriatelycameunderfirewhenitbecameapparentthatthemainstreampublichadnointentionof"melting"withcertain"other"racesandcultures.Subsequently,Americanimmigrationpoliciesbecamerestrictivebasedonrace,anexampleofstatesponsoredracismintendedtowardsreducingthediversityofthemeltingpot.Muchhasbeenwrittenabouttheso-called"myth"ofthemeltingpottheory(Frey;Booth).However,themetaphorhaspersistedandepitomizeswhatsomeAmericansseeasanidealmodelforthiscountry.

Themeltingpottheory,alsoreferredtoasculturalassimilation,revolvesaroundtheanalogythat"theingredientsinthepot(peopleofdifferentculturesandreligions)arecombinedsoastolosetheirdiscreteidentitiesandyieldafinalproductofuniformconsistencyandflavor,whichisquitedifferentfromtheoriginalinputs"("MeltingPot").Thisideadiffersfromotheranalogies,particularlythesaladbowlanalogywheretheingredientsareencouragedtoretaintheirculturalidentities,thusretainingtheir"integrityandflavor"whilecontributingtoatastyandnutritioussalad("MeltingPot").Yetanotherfoodanalogyisthatoftheethnicstew,wherethereisalevelofcompromisebetweenintegrationandculturaldistinctiveness.

Whatthesefoodanalogieshaveincommonisanappreciationthateachoftheseethnicitieshassomethingtocontributetothesocietyasawhole.Bycomparingethnic/culturalgroupstoingredientsinarecipe,westartwiththeassumptionthateachingredientisimportantandthefinalproductwouldnotbethesameifsomedistinctingredientweremissing.However,inthemeltingpotanalogy,thispremiseistheleastapparentandcanbecriticizedforitsdismissivelysimplisticsocialtheories.Thisisoneappropriateevaluationoftheweaknessesofthemeltingpotandthetossedsaladanalogies:

Inthecaseofthemeltingpottheaimisthatallculturesbecomereflectedinonecommonculture,howeverthisisgenerallythecultureofthedominantgroup-IthoughtthiswasmixedvegetablesoupbutIcanonlytastetomato.Inthecaseofthesaladbowl,culturalgroupsshouldexistseparatelyandmaintaintheirpracticesandinstitutions,however,Whereisthedressingtocoveritall?

Thiscriticismthatthemeltingpotproducesasocietythatprimarilyreflectsthedominantcultureinsteadoffusingintoacompletelynewentityisreiteratedbyothersociologists,anthropologists,andculturalgeographersas"Anglo-conformity"Thistypeofassimilationwasseenasworkinglikeaone-waystreetanditwasviewedassomethingthatdependedprimarilyonthecooperativenessofimmigrantstobereorientedtowardsthedominantculture.Theideathatthedominantculturewouldbeinfusedwithnewenergythroughtheinfluencesofethnicgroupsretainingtheirdistinctiveculturalattributesandtherebyforginganew,strongerAmericaduetotheirdivergentculturalcontributionswasnotgivenmuchweightbyearlyresearchers.

ItshouldbenotedinthisdiscussionthatearlierinAmericansociologyhistory,someofthesetermstookondistinctlydifferentflavours.Thisambiguityofterminologycontributestoconfusioninthecurrentdiscourse.Forinstance,in1901,SarahSimonsisquotedasmakingthisconclusionwithregardstoassimilation:

Inbrief,thefunctionofassimilationistheestablishmentofhomogeneitywithinthegroup;butthisdoesnotmeanthatallvariationshallbecrushedout.Invitalmatters,suchaslanguage,idealsofgovernment,law,andeducation,uniformityshallprevail;inpersonalmattersofreligionandhabitsoflife,however,individualityshallbeallowedfreeplay.Thus,thespreadof"consciousnessofkind"mustbeaccompaniedbythespreadofconsciousnessofindividuality.

Furthermore,accordingtoPeterKivisto'sinterpretationofChicagoSchoolsociologistRobertE.Park'swritingsonthesubject,theoriesonassimilationoriginallydifferedfromthemeltingpotfusiontheoryinthatassimilation"signalstheproliferationofdiversity.Ratherthanenforcedconformity,itmakespossibleagreaterdegreeofindividualautonomy"andcreates"aculturalclimatethatispredicatedbypluralism"wherebythis"culturalpluralism(ormulticulturalism)cancoexistwithassimilation"Theideathatamultiethnicsocietycouldattainaninterdependentcohesionbasedonnationalsolidaritywhilemaintainingdistinctculturalhistoriesnotdependentonlike-mindedhomogeneitywasthusproposedbackintheearly1900's.

However,itisvitaltorecognizethatcoerciveassimilationtheoristsoftendonotsupporttheideathatimmigrantsshouldmaintaindistinctculturalattributes.Inthemodern-daydiscussion,coerciveassimilationtheoriesoftentakeonadecidedlyracistovertone,withmanyassimilationproponentsurgingAmericentricpoliciessuchasEnglish-onlyeducation,strictimmigrationpolicies,stipulationsofnationalisticcriteriaforcitizenship,andeliminatingprogramsaimedathelpingminorities(Booth;Hayworth).ThisissueoverterminologyandsocialmetaphorsisvitallyimportantbecauseAmericastandsatacriticalideologicalturningpoint.Culturalgeographersdescribeourcurrentsocietyasexperiencinga"multiculturalbacklash"thatwilldrasticallyaffectimmigrationlegislationandethnicstudiesandpossiblyleadustowardsamorerestrictiveandintolerantnation(Mitchell641).Thecurrentdiscourseaboutculturalassimilationseekstorelegateincongruentculturalattributestotheprivatearenasoasnottodisturbthedominantsociety(Mitchell642),andinsteadofpromotingatoleranceofdiversity,weseethemodern-dayassimilationproponentsurgingstrictdeportationandincreasinglyrestrictiveimmigrationpoliciesinordertoprotectso-calledAmericanvalues.

Someproponents,suchasArizonaCongressmanJ.D.Hayworth,arecallingforareturnofthesametypeofassimilationpoliciesthatothersrefertoasthe"humiliatingAmericanizationprogramsofthe1910'sand1920's".Thoseprogramsoccurredduringanothertimeofheightenednationalconcern,namelyWWIandthesubsequent"RedScare,"wherecoerciveeducationandemploymentpolicieswereenactedthatcompelledimmigrantstoassimilate.Thisassimilationprocesswasstructuredtoproducecitizensthatconformed,notjusttoAmericandemocraticideals,butalsotoAmericanizedprivatehabits,AmericanEnglish,andbasicpoliticalandsocialideologiesintendedtocreateapliableworkforceandensurecertainpoliticalleaningsDuringthewar,immigrantsexperiencedoppression,xenophobia,andpropagandadesignedtostripthemoftheirnativeculturesandloyalties.Thepublicschoolsystem"instructedthechildrenofimmigrantsin"proper"Anglo-Saxonvaluesandtraditionsandstronglyencouragedthemtotaketheirlessonshometotheirfamilies.Meanwhile,ethnicpresseswerescrutinizedandinspectedbytheU.S.governmentandhigherfinancialburdenswereplaceuponthemfromtheU.S.PostalService,whodemandedtoanalyzetranslations,effectivelylimitingtheirfreedomofspeechandeventuallyresultinginmanypressesclosing.

Afterthewar,theleftoversocialstrainsandextremepatriotismgaveventfornewobsessions,includingtheRedScareoversuspectedcommunists,resurgenceinthewhitesupremacistorganizationssuchastheKuKluxKlan,religiouslybasedfundamentalism,laborstrikes,andtheprohibitionofalcohol.Certainly,civillibertieswerebeingcastaside,andminoritygroupsborethebruntofthisassaultundertheguiseofbecomingmore"American"andless"foreign."NowweareseeingasimilarleaningtowardscoerciveassimilationspreadingacrossAmericaduetotheheightenedconcernoverterrorismandthecultural/religiousdifferencesthatareperceivedtobebehindthatideologicaldiscord.Ifthisassimilationthinkingproceedstowarditslogicalconclusion,Americawillmovebackwardssociallyandbecomeatrulyblandmeltedpotofculturesthatiswillingtosacrificeeverythingunderamisplacedparadigmofpatriotism.

Thestanceofmanycoerciveassimilationproponentssmacksofracistovertonesandisbasedonapprehensionof"others"andexclusionarythinkingmorethanitisbasedonpreservationofcorevalues.Forexample,inthecaseofthepoliticaldebateoverdesignatingEnglishasAmerica'sofficiallanguage,ThomasRicentomakesthispoint:

TheEnglishlanguagehasoftenbeenusedasamarkerofone's"American-ness",andtheuseofnon-Englishlanguagesasamarkertoone's"foreign-ness."Penalizingnon-Englishspeakersbylimitingtheiraccesstopublicservices,votingandeducationisillogical,foritwouldfurtherstigmatizenon-Englishspeakers,ratherthanhelpthemacquirethelanguage...Restrictingaccessofcitizensandnon-citizensalikebecauseofalanguagebarrierisnotonlybadpublicpolicy,butaninsultandacalculatedprovocation,theinitialstepwouldcertainlybeapro-tractedconflictbetweenEnglishandnon-Englishspeakers.

TheimplicationsofthistypeofproposedlegislationdrivesfearintominoritygroupsseekingtopreservetheirculturalheritageagainstatideofAmericentricpropaganda.Ultimately,thoseseekingtoenactcoerciveassimilationpoliciesthreatentofracturethecommongroundoftheAmericandreamthattheyclaimtobefocusedonprotecting.Minoritygroupsarenearingsuchnumbersinthiscountrythatitisprojectedthattheword"minority"willsoonbecomeobsolete.EnactingexclusionarypolicieswillonlyfractureanalreadydelicatesocialframeworkandpotentiallyfurtherdisenfranchisetheverygroupsAmericaneedsforinclusiveunity.

Ontheotherhand,multiculturalismhasitsownsetofweakpointsthatneedfurtherevaluationandrevision.Themeltingpotandthetossedsaladmetaphorsarebothinherentlyflawed,atleastsofarintheirpracticalapplication.Onthis,therearemanysocialtheoristswhoarewritingaboutacompromisebetweenthemeltingpotapproachandthetossedsaladanalogy.Onesuchnewtheoryistheaforementioned"ethnicstew"fromLauraLaubeova,whohopesthatsuchananalogycanhelpbridgethegapbetweenthetwoconceptstocreate"asortofpan-Hungariangoulashwherethepiecesofdifferentkindsofmeatstillkeeptheirsolidstructure."Indeed,somesortofcompromisebetweenfullassimilationandmulticulturalismwillbenecessarytoretainourmultiethnicflavourwhilebuildingacohesivesociety.

Thebottomlineisthatpeoplearepeople,notfood.Despitethevarietyoffoodmetaphorsatourdisposal,thepowerofthisrhetoricislimitedandwearsthinduringpragmaticapplication.Foodmetaphorscanbeuseful,butwedonotneedmorevaguemetaphorsthatleadtointerpretivedisparities.Whatweneedisanentirelynewdialogueonthesubject,onethatcompletelyandclearlyredefinesAmerica'sobjectiveforamultiethnicsocietythatallowsfordiversity,notjustintheprivaterealm,butalsointhepublicsphere.Wedonotneedacoerciveassimilationprogramthatrevertsbacktooutdatednationalisticparanoia.Weneedaninclusiveworkingsocialtheorythatunitesthedisparateenclavesofthissocietyintoamanageableentitymovinginthesamecollectivedirection.WhetherAmericanswillevereventuallybereformedintowhatIsraelZangwillcalled"afusionofallraces"remainstobeseen(Zangwill).Rightnow,whatAmericaneedsisadefinitivesocialdirectionthatleansawayfromcoerciveassimilationdogmaandtowardsatrulyinclusivenationalidentity.TrueAmericandreamersshouldnotsettleforanythingless.

2.Americansaresaidtobemoreracial-consciousthanclass-conscious.Whyisthat?Towhatextentcansuchastatementbejustified?

KeyPoints

TheUSAisamulti-racialandmulti-ethnicnation,withpeoplefromallovertheworld.Peoplearekeenlyawareoftheirownnationalidentity,betheywhite,black,brownoryellow.Insuchadiversifiedcountry,theubiquitouspresenceofdifferentcolorsandracesconstantlyremindsoneofhis/herethnicidentity,enhancingone’sracialandethnicconsciousnessthroughdailyencounteringandpersonalexperiences.

Moreover,theUSisalsoanationofassociations,wherepeoplejoinorganizationofeverytype,includingracially-andethnically-basedinterestgroups,thusreinforcingtheirracialandethnicaffiliation.Throughtheseraciallyorethnically-basedorganizations,theymanagetocreateacommunityoftheirown,maintainingtheirlanguage,customs,tradition,religion,andwayoflife.

Bycontrast,classasapoliticalconcept,hasnevertakendeeprootsinAmerica.Foronething,theavailabilityofsuffrageforallcitizens(blacks,Indiansandwomenallgottheirsuffragelaterthanwhitemakes),theFirstTenAmendmentsofBillofRights,andthesocialwelfareprograms,haveallmaderadicalorrevolutionaryideasdifficulttoexist,muchlesstospreadandappealtothemasses.Foranother,freelaborsystem,relativelyabundantsocialmobility,theconstantsupplyofnewlaborforcebyimmigrants,easyaccesstoeducation,andemphasisonindividualism,equalityandfaircompetition,havemadeindividualsratherthangroups(class)responsibleforsuccessorfailure,hencereducingtheimportanceofclassinone’sachievementsinlife.Forstillanother,theUSgovernmentanditsrulingelitehavesparednoefforttopreachbourgeoisvaluesandcapitalistdoctrinetotheAmericanpublic,instillingtheminthemindsofAmericanpeople.Finally,therulingclassanditspartieshaveneverhesitatedtocrushradicalmovementswhenevertheyareperceivedtobethreateningtothefundamentalinterestsofcapitalism,betheysocialistorcommunist,makingitdifficult,ifnotimpossible,forradicalpoliticalorganizationstoexistandoperateinthecountry.

Largelyduetotheabove-mentionedreasons,raceisaccentedandclassdeemphasized,causingAmericanstobemoreraciallyconsciousthanclassconscious.

UnitFour:PoliticalInstitutions

KeyPoints(answerscanbefoundontheInternet)

Whatisthesignificanceof“judiciaryreview”inAmericanpolitics?

OpponentsofjudicialreviewhavechargedthattheSupremeCourt'spowertoinvalidateFederalandstatelawsoractionshasnocounterpartincommonorcivillaw,andhasnotextualbasisintheUnitedStatesConstitution.ThelawoftheUnitedStatesderivesingreatpartfromthecommonlawtraditionsthecoloniesinheritedfromBritain,whicharguablyhavevestedthepowerofjudicialreviewinthepeoplesincethesigningoftheMagnaCartain1215.

ProponentsofthedoctrinearguethatwhileitistruethatjudicialreviewisnotmentionedintheConstitution,itislikewisetruethattheConstitutionmakesnoexplicitmentionoftheadversarialsystem,statedecisis,orvirtuallyanyotherspecificaspectofthecommonlaw.TheargumentisthereforemadethattheseconceptswerenecessarilyimplicitinwhattheFramersunderstoodbytheterm"thejudicialpower,"andthereforeshouldgoverntheConstitution'sinterpretation.ThereisanarguablecasethatwhilejudicialreviewisnotexplicitlywrittenintotheConstitution,itcouldbeimpliedbytheprovisioninArticleSix:“ThisConstitution,andtheLawsoftheUnitedStateswhichshallbemadeinPursuancethereof...shallbethesupremeLawoftheLand...”whichwouldimplythatthelawsoftheUnitedStateswhicharenotinpursuancetotheConstitutionarenotthesupremelawoftheland.TheremainderofArticleSix“andtheJudgesineveryStateshallbeboundthereby,anyThingintheConstitutionorLawsofanyStatetotheContrarynotwithstanding”clearlymeansthataStatelaworstateConstitutionalprovisionincontraventiontoFederallaw(whichisinpursuancetotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates)ortotheConstitutionisinvalid,andthattheConstitutionimpliesthatjudgesaretheproperauthoritytofindaprovisionunconstitutional,andthispowercouldequallyapplytoaFederallawwhichisnotinpursuancetotheConstitution.

Inshort,judiciaryreviewestablishestheUSSupremeCourtasthesoleinterpreterofthevalidity/constitutionalityofanylawsinthecountry,local,stateorfederal,makingtheprincipleof“checksandbalances”actuallyoperationalinAmericanpolitics.

WhyhastheturnoutbeensolowinAmericangeneralelectionsduringthepastfewdecades?

KeyPoints(answercanbefoundontheInternet)

Overthelast40years,