下載本文檔
版權(quán)說(shuō)明:本文檔由用戶提供并上傳,收益歸屬內(nèi)容提供方,若內(nèi)容存在侵權(quán),請(qǐng)進(jìn)行舉報(bào)或認(rèn)領(lǐng)
文檔簡(jiǎn)介
1.Whatisthedefinitionofword?Theminimalfreeformofalanguage,whichhasagivensound,meaningandsyntacticfunction.Word:asingleunitoflanguagewhichmeanssomethingandcanbespokenorwritten.Asoundoracombinationofsounds,oritsrepresentationinwritingorprinting,thatsymbolizesandcommunicatesameaningandmayconsistofasinglemorphemeorofacombinationofmorphemes.(Linguistics)oneoftheunitsofspeechorwritingthatnativespeakersofalanguageusuallyregardasthesmallestisolablemeaningfulelementofthelanguage,althoughlinguistswouldanalyzethesefurtherintomorphemesRelatedadjectivelexical,verbal.(Electronics&ComputerScience/ComputerScience)Computingasetofbitsusedtostore,transmit,oroperateuponanitemofinformationinacomputer,suchasaprograminstruction.Definitionofaword
Aristotledefinedawordasthesmallestsignificantunitofspeech-adefinitionwhichheldswayuntilrecently.Modernmethodsofanalysishavediscoveredsemanticunitsbelowthewordlevel.Anewtermisthereforeneededtodenotethesmallestsignificantelementofspeech;incontemporarylinguistictheoryitisknownasamorpheme.
Bloomfielddistinguishesbetweentwotypesoflinguisticforms:freeformsandboundforms.Freeformscanstandbythemselvesandsometimesactasacompleteutterancewhereasboundformscannot.Forexample,thewordnicelycontainsthefreeformnice,andtheboundform-ly.Theformercanoccurasanindependentunitandevenasasentence(Whatabouttheotherfilm?-Nice).Butthesuffix-lycannotstandbyitself,tosaynothingofactingasacompleteutterance.AccordingtoBloomfield,awordisaminimalfreeform.Lexicologydealsbydefinitionwithwordsandwordformingmorphemes,thatistosay,withsignificantunits.Itfollowsthattheseelementsmustbeinvestigatedintheirformandintheirmeaning.Therefore,fromthelexicologicalpointofview,awordisacombinationofform(phonological)andmeaning(lexicalandgrammatical).Inaddition,awordactsasastructuralunitofasentence.2.Whatdoesonomatopoeticmotivationmean?Whatdoessemanticmotivationmean?Doesonomatopoeiamotivationcontradictthestatementthatthereisnonaturalconnectionbetweensoundandmean?OnomatopoeiaisderivedfromGreekonomatopoiia"word-making":onoma,-matos"name"+poieo"make".Variousothertermshavebeensuggested,suchasechoism(Jespersen)and"phonaestheticfunction"(Firth).Onomatopoeicmotivationmeansdefiningtheprincipleofmotivationbysound.Thesoundsofsuchwordsascuckoo,ding-dong,swish,buzz,seemtobeappropriatetotheirsenses.Butithastobepointedoutthatonomatopoeicwordsconstituteonlyasmallpartofthevocabulary.Theformsofwordsnormallyhaveonlyaconventionalrelationshipwithwhattheyreferto.AccordingtoStephenUllmann,onomatopoeicformationcanbedividedintoprimaryonomatopoeiaandsecondaryonomatopoeia.
Ⅱ.Semanticmotivation
Semanticmotivationmeansthatmotivationisbasedonsemanticfactors.Itisakindofmentalassociation.Whenwespeakofthebonnetorthehoodofacar,ofacoatofpaint,orofpotatoescookedintheirjackets,theseexpressionsaremotivatedbythesimilaritybetweenthegarmentsandtheobjectsreferredto.Inthesameway,whenwesaytheclothfortheclergy,silkforaQ.C.,or"townandgown"for"townanduniversity",thereissemanticmotivationduetothefactthatthegarmentsinquestionarecloselyassociatedwiththepersonstheydesignate.Bothtypesofexpressionarefigurative:theformeraremetaphorical,basedonsomesimilaritybetweenthetwoelements,thelatteraremetonymic,foundedonsomeexternalconnection.Soundandmeaning
TheNaturalistshavearguedthattheoriginoflanguageliesinonomatopoeia,thatpeoplebegantalkingbycreatingiconicsignstoimitatethesoundsheardaroundtheminnature.Theymaintainthatthereisanaturalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.TheConventionalists,ontheotherhand,holdthattherelationsbetweensoundandmeaningareconventionalandarbitrary.Factshaveprovedthisargumenttobevalid.Wordsthatconveythesamemeaninghavedifferentphonologicalformsindifferentlanguages-forexample,Englishmeat/mi:t/,Chineseròu.Alternatively,thesamephonologicalformsmayconveydifferentmeanings-forexample,sight,site,cite.3.HowmanykindsofwordmeaningarethereinEnglish?Wordmeaningismadeupofvariouscomponentswhichareinterrelatedandinterdependent.Thesecomponentsarecommonlydescribedastypesofmeaning.Twomaintypesofwordmeaningaregrammaticalandlexical.Grammaticalmeaning:themeaningintermsofgrammarlexicalmeaning:Conceptualmeaningalsocalled“denotative”or“cognitive”meaning.Thisreferstothedefinitiongiveninthedictionary.Itiswidelyassumedtobethecentralfactorinlinguisticcommunicationandisintegraltotheessentialfunctioningoflanguage.Associativemeaningmeaningassociatedwiththeconceptualmeaningwhichcanbefurtherdividedintofollowingtypes:a)connotativemeaningb)socialmeaningc)affectivemeaningd)reflectedmeaninge)collocativemeaningThematicmeaning:Thisiswhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.4.Whatiscontext?Whatroledoescontextplayinlinguisticcommunication?Contextinitstraditionalsensereferstothelexicalitemsthatprecedeorfollowagivenword.Modernlinguistshavebroadeneditsscopetoincludebothlinguisticandextra-linguisticcontexts.?Linguisticcontextreferstowords,clauses,sentences,paragraphs,orwholebooksinwhichawordappears.?Extra-linguisticcontextreferstoaparticulartime,space,orcultureinwhichawordappears.?Linguisticcontextreferstowords,clauses,sentences,paragraphs,orwholebooksinwhichawordappears.Linguisticcontextcanbefurtherdividedinto?Lexicalcontext?Grammaticalcontext?Verbalcontextinitsbroadsense?Lexicalcontext:thelexemesthatco-occurwiththewordinquestion.Themeaningofthewordisaffectedordeterminedbytheneighboringlexemes.Roles:ContextcandistinguishEliminatingambiguityConveyingemotionalovertonesIndicatingreferentsandtherangeofthemeaningofaword5.Whatarethemajortypesofsynonymy?Explainthosetypeswithexamples.Ingeneral,Englishsynonymscanbedividedintotwotypes:completesynonymsandrelativesynonyms.AsforEnglishsynonyms,therearealotofslightdifferencesbetweentheminshadeofmeaning,affectivemeaning,stylisticmeaning,collocativemeaningandsoon.Absolutesynonyms絕對(duì)同義詞Absolutesynonymsarewordswhosemeaningisfullyidenticalinanycontextsothatonecanalwaysbesubstitutedfortheotherwithouttheslightestchangeinmeaning.Thiskindofsynonymsarerareandmaybefoundinspecialterminologysuchascompoundingandcompositioninlexicology,malnutritionandundernourishmentinmedicine.Relativesynonyms相對(duì)同義詞Synonymswhichdenotedifferentshadesofmeaningordifferentdegreesofagivenqualityarecalledrelativesynonyms.Thiskindsofsynonymsarethesameinsomedegreesuchasdiscoverandfindbothmeanseesomethingbutdiscovercanmeanbethefirstonetocomeacrosssomething,findmeansexperiencesomethinginsomeway.語(yǔ)言學(xué)的Synonymswhichdenotedifferentshadesofmeaningordifferentdegreesofagivenqualityarecalledrelativesynonyms.Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…2)Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;…3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,…4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,…6.Whatarethepossiblecauseoflanguagechange?Languagechangeisthephenomenonwherebyphonetic,morphological,semantic,syntactic,andotherfeaturesoflanguagevaryovertime.economy:Speakerstendtomaketheirutterancesasefficientandeffectiveaspossibletoreachcommunicativegoals.Purposefulspeakingthereforeinvolvesatrade-offofcostsandbenefits.themediumofcommunicationculturalenvironment:Groupsofspeakerswillreflectnewplaces,situations,andobjectsintheirlanguage,whethertheyencounterdifferentpeoplethereornot.analogy-reducingwordformsbylikeningdifferentformsofthewordtotheroot.languagecontact-theborrowingofwordsfromforeignlanguagesThecauseoflanguagechange語(yǔ)言變化的原因Soundassimilation語(yǔ)音同化Soundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundsismadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology-thelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.語(yǔ)音同化是指一個(gè)音受其毗鄰的音的音響而發(fā)生音變,使其發(fā)音變得與毗鄰的音接近。"Engla-land"-"England""ciese","cinn""cild"——cheese,chin,childRulesimplificationandregularization規(guī)則的簡(jiǎn)化與統(tǒng)一Itisatypeofspontaneousmorphologicalrulechangethatinvolvesexceptionalpluralformsofnouns英語(yǔ)名詞復(fù)數(shù)的形式有規(guī)則形態(tài)變化與不規(guī)則形態(tài)變化兩種,在英語(yǔ)演化過(guò)程中,由于不規(guī)則形態(tài)趨于規(guī)則化,所以復(fù)數(shù)形式趨向簡(jiǎn)化。Internalborrowing內(nèi)部借用Anotherkindofchangethatismotivatedbytheneedtolessentheburdenonmemoryiscalledinternalborrowing.引起語(yǔ)言變化的又一原因是旨在減輕記憶復(fù)旦的語(yǔ)言規(guī)則的內(nèi)部借用現(xiàn)象。Eg:cowsasthepluralof"cow"insteadoftheearlierplural"kine"Elaboration規(guī)則的細(xì)化Ruleelaborationoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicationclarityorexpressiveness.為了避免出現(xiàn)模棱兩可、含糊不清的詞句,或?yàn)榱颂岣哒Z(yǔ)言表達(dá)上的準(zhǔn)確性往往需要增加一些規(guī)則,致使句法規(guī)則更加細(xì)化。Socialtriggers社會(huì)因素Linguistshavebecomeincreasinglyawareofsociologicaltriggersforlanguageschanges.Suchas:wars,invasion,occupation,colonialization,andlanguageplanningandstandardizationpoliciesleadtovigorouslanguagechanges.Eg:NormanConquestmarkedthedawningoftheMiddleEnglishperiod.促使語(yǔ)言變化的原因不僅有語(yǔ)言內(nèi)部的,更多的是來(lái)自語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)外部的社會(huì)環(huán)境的變化,如:侵略戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)、殖民化政策、政府推行的語(yǔ)言規(guī)劃政策或標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化運(yùn)動(dòng)等。Culturaltransmission文化傳播Oneofthemostpervasivesourcesoflanguagechangeseemstobethecontinualprocessofculturaltransmissionacrossgenerations.Eg:oldpeople"icebox"butyoungerone"fridge"語(yǔ)言變化的原因還在于,層出不窮的新觀念和新事物需要人們用新的詞語(yǔ)去表達(dá)。Children'sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar兒童語(yǔ)言習(xí)得Thewaychildrenacquirethelanguageconstitutesanotherbasiccauseforlanguagechange.Moreimportantly,childrenhaveastrongdesiretosimplifyandregularizegrammaticalrules,particularlywhentheyseeadultsusecertainrulesoptionally.兒童在習(xí)得母語(yǔ)時(shí)接收到了各種語(yǔ)言信息和表達(dá)習(xí)慣,兒童往往偏向于習(xí)得簡(jiǎn)化了的或規(guī)則化的表達(dá)方式,語(yǔ)言演化也就自然出現(xiàn)了。7.Arethemeaningofsomewordscloselyrelatedwithculture?Givesomeexamples.Theword“chopsuey”datesbacktotasp-sui,Cantonese,isaChinesedishconsistingofmeat(oftenchicken,fish,beef,shrimp(UK:prawns)orpork)andeggs,cookedquicklywithvegetablessuchasbeansprouts,cabbage,andceleryandboundinastarch-thickenedsauce,nowisafamousdishinAmerica.KowtowisalsofromCantonesekow-tow,istheactofdeeprespectshownbykneelingandbowingsolowastohaveone'sheadtouchingtheground.AnalternativeChinesetermisketou,howeverthemeaningissomewhataltered:kòuoriginallymeant"knockwithreverence",whereaskēhasthegeneralmeaningof"touchupon(asurface)".AlsoChristmasshortsfromtheword”christ’smass”isthedayJesusChristwasborn.NowChristmas
溫馨提示
- 1. 本站所有資源如無(wú)特殊說(shuō)明,都需要本地電腦安裝OFFICE2007和PDF閱讀器。圖紙軟件為CAD,CAXA,PROE,UG,SolidWorks等.壓縮文件請(qǐng)下載最新的WinRAR軟件解壓。
- 2. 本站的文檔不包含任何第三方提供的附件圖紙等,如果需要附件,請(qǐng)聯(lián)系上傳者。文件的所有權(quán)益歸上傳用戶所有。
- 3. 本站RAR壓縮包中若帶圖紙,網(wǎng)頁(yè)內(nèi)容里面會(huì)有圖紙預(yù)覽,若沒有圖紙預(yù)覽就沒有圖紙。
- 4. 未經(jīng)權(quán)益所有人同意不得將文件中的內(nèi)容挪作商業(yè)或盈利用途。
- 5. 人人文庫(kù)網(wǎng)僅提供信息存儲(chǔ)空間,僅對(duì)用戶上傳內(nèi)容的表現(xiàn)方式做保護(hù)處理,對(duì)用戶上傳分享的文檔內(nèi)容本身不做任何修改或編輯,并不能對(duì)任何下載內(nèi)容負(fù)責(zé)。
- 6. 下載文件中如有侵權(quán)或不適當(dāng)內(nèi)容,請(qǐng)與我們聯(lián)系,我們立即糾正。
- 7. 本站不保證下載資源的準(zhǔn)確性、安全性和完整性, 同時(shí)也不承擔(dān)用戶因使用這些下載資源對(duì)自己和他人造成任何形式的傷害或損失。
最新文檔
- 山東省日照市嵐山區(qū)2024年數(shù)學(xué)六年級(jí)第一學(xué)期期末統(tǒng)考模擬試題含解析
- 商業(yè)計(jì)劃書撰寫指南
- 北京市順義區(qū)第一中學(xué)2021-2022學(xué)年物理高一第二學(xué)期期末調(diào)研模擬試題含解析
- 農(nóng)產(chǎn)品公共品牌價(jià)值實(shí)現(xiàn)路徑手冊(cè)
- 農(nóng)業(yè)機(jī)械操作使用及維護(hù)保養(yǎng)指南
- 高考語(yǔ)文專題課程設(shè)計(jì)
- 少年乒乓球教學(xué)課程設(shè)計(jì)
- 幼兒園教師心得演講稿(例文9篇)
- 合同審計(jì)底稿
- 醬菜中亞硝酸鹽含量的測(cè)定分析研究 化學(xué)工程與工藝專業(yè)
- 城市建筑工程停車場(chǎng)庫(kù)設(shè)置規(guī)則和配建標(biāo)準(zhǔn)
- QCT1067.4-2023汽車電線束和電器設(shè)備用連接器第4部分:設(shè)備連接器(插座)的型式和尺寸
- GB/T 44111-2024電化學(xué)儲(chǔ)能電站檢修試驗(yàn)規(guī)程
- 零售藥店醫(yī)保定點(diǎn)評(píng)估知識(shí)題庫(kù)A卷附有答案
- A型肉毒素注射美容記錄
- 鄉(xiāng)衛(wèi)生院醫(yī)療質(zhì)量與安全管理考核表(綜合科)
- 鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工業(yè)廠房技術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)
- MOOC 國(guó)際商務(wù)-暨南大學(xué) 中國(guó)大學(xué)慕課答案
- 2024-2029年中國(guó)物業(yè)管理行業(yè)市場(chǎng)發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀及競(jìng)爭(zhēng)格局與投資前景研究報(bào)告
- 2024年江西九江都昌縣留置看護(hù)隊(duì)員招聘筆試參考題庫(kù)附帶答案詳解
- 七年級(jí)英語(yǔ)老師班主任期末家長(zhǎng)會(huì)課件
評(píng)論
0/150
提交評(píng)論