英語詞匯學-構詞法

TipsforEnglishVocabularyStorage英語詞匯的積累Word-Formation:

TheMajorProcesses

構詞法的主要過程DerivationCompoundingConversionWord-formationisaprocessofcreatingnewwordsbymeansofexistingelementsandaccordingtothepatternsandrulesofagivenlanguage.Thethreemajorprocessesaffixationorderivation(17.5%)Prefixationsuffixationconversion(10.5%)compositionorcompounding(27%)1.Derivation派生Derivationoraffixationisakindofword-formationwhenanewwordisformedbyaddingaderivationalmorpheme(usuallysuffixorprefix)totheroot.Prefixationisakindofword-formationwhenanewwordisformedbyaddingaprefixtotheroot.Suffixationisakindofword-formationwhenanewwordisformedbyaddingasuffixtotheroot.

Prefixesmodifythelexicalmeaningoftheroot;thereforethesimplewordanditsprefixedderivativeusuallybelongtothesamepartofspeech.Thegroupofclass-changingprefixesisrathersmall,e.g.:

be-adj.orn.----v.becalm,belittle,befriendde-n.-----v.deform,deoil,defrosten-n.-----v.enslave,endangerun-n.-----v.unleash（解開…皮帶）,unearthanti-n.-----adj.anti-war,antibacterial

inter-n.-----adj.inter-state,inter-laboratorypost-n.-----adj.postwar,postliberationpre-n.-----adj.prewar,preplantPrefixation:Theclassificationofprefixes前綴的分類Insomereferencebooks,prefixes(andsuffixes)areclassifiedaccordingtotheirsource,butthisdoesnotseemtohelpfromapracticalpointofview.Itseemsmorehelpfultoclassifythemostimportantproductiveprefixesbytheirmeaningintothefollowingtencategories:1)Negativeprefixes:canbeusedinfrontofmanywords(mainlynounsandverbs)toexpressanegativeoroppositemeaning.

否定前綴a-/an-:amoral,asexual,atheism,anacid,atypicaldis-:dishonest,discontent,discover,disobey,disagreein-:Incomplete,inconsistent,incorrect,invulnerable,illogical,illegal,impolite,immoral,imbalance,irrational,irregularnon-:nonviolent,non-cooperation,nonautomatic,nonadjustable,nonalcoholic

un-:uninformative,unexpected,unease,unrestAmentionshouldbemadeofthenegativeprefixin.Itcanberealizedindifferentphonologicalenvironmentasin,im,ir,il.

“Im”,before/b/,/p/and/m/:imbalance,impossible,impoverish“Il”,before/l/:illegal,illogical,illiteracy“Ir”,before/r/:irrelevant,irregular,irremovable“In”,beforeothersounds:informal,insensible,inevitableOrderLiterateSymmetryGovernmentalRelevantProductiveBelievableVulnerableSaneRelatedAlignedMatureDisorderIlliterateAsymmetryNongovernmentalIrrelevantUnproductiveUnbelievableInvulnerableInsaneUnrelatedNonalignedImmature2)Reversativeorprivative（逆反）:Thisgroupofprefixescanallbefoundinthepreviousgroup,for“reversative”isaspecialcaseof“negative”.Thisgroupofprefixesisgenerallyusedbeforeverbstoformtheirrelationalantonymswhichdesignatereversativeaction.de-:defrost,deregulate,degenerate,deform,denationalize,decomposeun-:unwind,unpack,untie,unwrap,unmaskdis-:disconnect,disarm,disappear,discloseCentralizePlaneInfectZipRegulatePossessPolluteDecentralizeDeplaneDisinfectUnzipDeregulateDispossessDepollute

3)Pejorativeprefixes（貶義）:thisgroupofprefixescanbeusedtoexpressdisapprovalorsuggestthatsomeoneorsomethingisoflittlevalueandimportance.mis-:misguide,misapplication,misbehavior,mischoice,misfortunemal-:maladjustment,maldigestion,malfunction,maldevelopmentpseudo-:pseudonym,pseudoscience,pseudoclassic,pseudo-friend

4)Prefixesofdegreeorsize:hyper-(morethatusual):hyperactive,hypercritical,hyperaggressive,hypercautiousultra-(extremely,toexcess):ultramodern,ultrasecret,ultraclean,ultrasonic,ultraconservativemini-(verysmall):minibus,minicamera,miniskirtout-(surpassing):outdo,outgrow,outliveover-(toexcess):overwork,overestimate,overemphasize,overabundance,overburdenunder-(toolittle,notenough):underdeveloped,underpopulation,undergraduate■super-(morepowerfulthatusual):supermarket,superpower,superstar■sub-(lesser):subadult,subtitle,subculture,subatom

ComputerConsciousNaturalSensitiveSimpleNumberStatementcultureMinicomputerSubconsciousSupernaturalHypersensitive/ultrasensitiveOversimpleOutnumberUnderstatementSubculture5)Prefixesoforientationandattitudeco-(togethter):co-author,co-star,co-prosperity,cooperationcounter-(against):counterexample,counterclaim(反訴),counteract,counterattack,countercultureanti-(against):anti-abortion,anti-art,antiwar,antibacterial,antisocial,anticancer,antibody

pro-(infavorof):pro-American,pro-revolutionary,pro-Fascism,pro-student,proslavery

6)Locativeprefixes

fore-(placedatthefront):forearm,foreleg,forename,forewordinter-(between):international,intergovernmental,intertwine,interdisciplinary,intercollege

trans-(across):transatlantic,transoceanic,transmit,transplanttele-(distant):telephone,telegram,telecommunication,telescopeViewConferenceContinentalGroundCastRacialShoreInterviewteleconferenceIntercontinentalForegroundTelecastTransracial

Foreshore7)Prefixesoftimeandorderex-(formerandstillliving):ex-husband,ex-president,ex-colony,ex-convict

fore-(before;inadvanceoftimeorrank):foresee,foretell,forefather,forewarn

pre-(before):prewar,prehistoric,prepay,premarital

post-(after):post-election,postwar,postgraduate,postdoctoral8)Numberprefixesuni-/mono-:unilateral,unicell,unicircuit,unicolor,unicycle,unidimensional,uniform,unipolar,monoxide,monocrystal,monogamy,monologue

bi-/di-:bicycle,bilingual,bimonthly,dioxide,dialogue,dichotomy,disyllabletri-:triangular,triatomic,trimonthly,trilateral,trilingualquadri,tetra:quadrilateral,quadruple,tetragonpenta:pentagon,pentagram,pentacleSext,hexa:hexagon,sexcentenarySept,hepta:heptaglot,septennialOct：octagon,octadnov/nona,ennea:novennial,nonary,enneagonDeci,deca:decimalfraction/point,decimalization,decade,decathlonmulti-/poly-:multipurpose,multipolar,multiangular,multilingual,polyatomic,polycrystal,polygamysemi-:semicircle,semiliterate,semivowel,semiannual,semicolony,semiautomaticLingualLateralPolarDimensionalUnilingual,bilingual,trilingual,multilingualUnilateral,bilateral,trilateral,multilateralUnipolar,bipolar,tripolar,multipolarUnidimensional,bidimensional,tridimensional(three-dimensional),multidimensional9)Conversionprefixes

a-(addedtoverbstoproducepredicativeadjectives):aloud,asleep,aglow,awashbe-(withnounstoformtransitiveverbs;withnounsplus–edtoproduceadjectives):belittle,bestir,befriend,bewitch,befoggeden/em-(withnounsoradjectivestocreatetransitiveverbs)(toputinoron):endanger,enforce,enable,embody,embitter,empower,enrich,enslave,embed,embank10)Miscellaneousprefixesauto(self)-:automation,autobiography,autocontrol

Neo-(new):Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism,neo-fascism,NeolithicPan-(all):Pan-Pacific,Pan-American,Pan-Africanhomo(thesame):homonym,homophone,homocentricvice(deputy):vice-chairman,vice-governor,vice-presidentSuffixationSuffixationistheformationofanewwordbyaddingasuffixoracombiningformtothebase,andusuallychangingtheword-classofthebase;boyn.-ishboyishadj.

BUT:boyn.+hoodboyhood(anabstractn.)

TheclassificationofsuffixesSincesuffixesmainlychangethewordclass,weshallgroupsuffixesonagrammaticalbasisinto1)nounsuffixes2)adjectivesuffixes3)adverbsuffixes4)verbsuffixesA.Noun(-forming)suffixes:(1)具有某種職業(yè)或動作的人1)

-an,-ain,表示"……地方的人，精通……的人”American,historian,2)

-al,表示"具有……職務的人"principal,3)

-ant,-ent,表示"……者”merchant,agent,servant,student,4)

-ar,表示"……的人”scholar,liar,peddler5)

-ard,-art,表示"做……的人”coward,laggard,braggart6)

-arian,表示"……派別的人，……主義的人”humanitarian,vegetarian7)

-ary,表示“從事……的人”secretary,missionary（傳教士）8)

-ate,表示"具有……職責的人"candidate,graduate9)

-ator,表示"做……的人"educator,speculator(投機者)10)-crat,表示"某種政體，主義的支持者"democrat,bureaucrat11)-ee,表示"動作承受者"employee,examinee12)-eer,表示"從事于……人"engineer,volunteer13)-er,表示"從事某種職業(yè)的人,某地區(qū)，地方的人"banker,observer,Londoner,villager14)-ese,表示"……國人，…..地方的人”Japanese15)-ess,表示"陰性人稱名詞，actress,hostess,manageress17)-ian,表示"……地方人，信仰…….教的人，從事……職業(yè)的人”Christian,physician(內(nèi)科醫(yī)生)，musician18)-ician,表示"……家，”electrician,magician,technician19)-icist,表示"……家，…….者,”physicist,phoneticist,technicist20)-ic,表示"……者，……師"mechanic,critic21)-ie,表示“可愛，指小"dearie,auntie,lassie(小姑娘)22)-ier,表示"從事……職業(yè)”cavalier,clothier,brazier(黃銅匠)23)-ine,ian,表示"陰性人稱"heroine,ballerina24)-ist,表示"從事……研究者，信仰……主義者"pianist,communist,dentist,artist,chemist26）-logist,表示“……學家"biologist,geologist(地質(zhì)學家)27)-or,表示"……者"author,doctor,operator,28)-ster,表示"做…事情的人”gamester(賭徒)，songster(2).構成，具有抽象名詞的含義1)

-acy,表示"性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)，境遇"accuracy,diplomacy2)

-age,表示"狀態(tài)，行為，身份及其結果，總稱"courage,storage,marriage3)

-al,a)表示"事物的動作，過程”refusal,arrival,survival,denial,approvalb)表示具體的事物manual（手冊）,signal,editorial（社論）,journal4)

-ance,-ence表示"性質(zhì)，狀況，行為，過程，總量，程度”endurance,importance,diligence,difference,obedience5)

-ancy,-ency,表示"性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)，行為，過程"frequency,urgency,efficiency,6)

-bility,表示"動作，性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)"possibility,feasibility,7)

-craft,表示"工藝，技巧”woodcraft,handicraft,statecraft（治國策）8)

-cracy,表示"統(tǒng)治，支配"bureaucracy,democracy9)

-cy,表示"性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)，職位，級別"bankruptcy(破產(chǎn))，supremacy10)-dom,表示"等級，領域，狀態(tài)"freedom,kingdom,wisdom11)-ery,-ry,表示"行為，狀態(tài)，習性"bravery,bribery,rivalry12)-ety,表示"性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)”variety,dubiety(懷疑)13)-faction,-facture,表示"作成，……化，作用"satisfaction,manufacture14)-hood,表示"資格，身份,年紀，狀態(tài)"childhood,manhood,falsehood15)-ice,表示"行為，性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)"notice,justice,service16)-ine,表示"帶有抽象概念"medicine,discipline,famine17)-ing,表示"動作的過程，結果"building,writing,learning18)-ion,-sion,-tion,-ation,-ition,表示"行為的過程，結果，狀況"action,solution,conclusion,destruction,expression,correction19)-ise,表示"性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)”exercise,merchandise(商業(yè))20)-ism,表示"制度，主義，學說，信仰，行為"socialism,criticism,colloquialism,heroism21)-ity,表示"性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)，程度”purity,reality,ability,calamity22)-ment,表示"行為，狀態(tài)，過程，手段及其結果treatment,movement,judgment,punishment,argument23)-mony,表示“動作的結果，狀態(tài)”ceremony,testimony（證詞）24)-ness,表示"性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)，程度"goodness,kindness,tiredness,friendliness25)-or,-our,表示"動作，性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)"favor,error,26)-osity,表示"動作，狀態(tài)”curiosity27)-ship,表示"情況，性質(zhì)，技巧，技能及身份，職業(yè)”hardship,membership,friendship28)-th,表示"動作，性質(zhì)，過程，狀態(tài)"depth,wealth,truth,length,growth29)-tude,表示“性質(zhì)，狀態(tài)，程度”latitude(緯度),altitude(海拔)30)-ure,表示"行為，結果"exposure,pressure,failure,procedure(手續(xù))，31)-y,表示"行為的結果，狀態(tài)，性質(zhì)”glory,history,victory,inquiry(3)帶有場所，地方的含義1)

-age,表示"住所，地點"village,cottage2)

-ary,表示"住所，場地"library,granary(谷倉)3)

-ery,ry,表示"工作場所，飼養(yǎng)所，地點"laundry,nursery,surgery(手術室)4)

-ory,表示“工作場所，住處”factory,dormitory,laboratory,observatory（氣象臺）(4)帶有學術，科技含義1)

-grapy,表示"……學，寫法”biography,calligraphy,geography2)

-ic,ics,表示“……學”logic,mechanics（機械學）,optics（光學）,electronics3)

-ology,表示"……學

”biology,zoology,technology(工藝學)4)

-nomy,表示"……學……術"astronomy,economy,bionomy(生態(tài)學)5)

-ery,表示“學科，技術”chemistry,cookery（烹飪術）,machinery6)

-y,表示“……學，術，法”photography（攝影術）,philosophy(5)表示人和事物的總和，集合含義1)

-age,tonnage（排水量）2)

-dom,newspaperdom(新聞界)3)

-hood,neighbourhood,womanhood4)

-ery,cavalry（騎兵）,ministry(內(nèi)閣)5)

-ure,legislature,judicature(6)表示物品和物質(zhì)名稱的含義1)

-ant,ent,solvent（溶劑）,constant（常數(shù)）2)

-al,signal,pictorial(畫報)3)

ar,collar,pillar(石柱)4)

-er,boiler,computer,washer,cooker5)

-ery,drapery(綢緞)6)

-ing,clothing,matting（席）7)

-ment,instrument,equipment,attachment（附加裝置）(7)表示“細小”的含義1)

-ette,cigarette,essayette(短文)2)

-ling,duckling3)

-let,booklet,pamphlet（小冊子）4)-y,doggy,pussyb.Adjective(forming)suffixes:（1）帶有“屬性，傾向，相關”的含義1)

-able,-ible,movable,comfortable,applicable,visible,responsible2)

-al,natural,additional,educational3)

-ant,-ent,distant,important,excellent4)

-ar,similar,popular,regular5)

-ary,military,voluntary6)

-ice,-atie,ical,politic,systematic,historic,physical,7)

-ing,moving,touching,daring8)-ish,foolish,bookish,selfish9)-ive,active,impressive,decisive10)-ory,satisfactory,compulsory

(2)表示“相象，類似”的含義1)

-ish,boyish,childish2)

-esque,picturesque3)

-like,manlike,childlike4)

-ly,manly,fatherly,scholarly,motherly5)

-some,troublesome,handsome6)

-y,milky,pasty(3)表示“充分的”含義1)

-ful,beautiful,wonderful,helpful,truthful2)

-ous,dangerous,generous,courageous,various(4)表示由某種物質(zhì)形成，制成或生產(chǎn)的含義1)

-en,wooden,golden,woolen（毛紡的）2)

-ous,gaseous（氣態(tài)的）3)

-fic,scientific(5)表示方向的含義1)

-ern,eastern,western2)

-ward,downward,forward(6)表示“倍數(shù)”的含義1)

-fold,twofold,tenfold(7)表示“數(shù)量關系”的含義1)

-teen,thirteen2)

-ty,fifty3)

-th,fourth,fiftieth(8)表示國籍，語種，宗教的含義1)

-an,Roman,European2)

-ese,Chinese,Japanese3)

-ish,English,Spanish(9)表示“比較程度”的含義1)

-ish,reddish,yellowish2)

-most,foremost,topmost(10)其他的含義-less,表示否定，countless,stainless,wirelessc.Verb(-forming)suffixes:1)

-ize,ise,表示"做成，變成，……化“modernize,mechanize,democratize,organize2)

-en,表示"使成為，引起，使有”quicken,weaken,soften,harden3)

-fy,表示"使……化,使成”beautify,purify,intensify,signify,simplify4)

-ate,表示“成為……，處理，作用”separate,operate,indicateFalseSterileIntenseFatHorrorMemoryApologyFalsifySterilize(消毒)IntensifyFattenHorrifyMemorizeApologized.Adverb(forming)suffixes:1)

-ly:possibly,swiftly,simply2)

-ward,-wards(towardsthestateddirectionandplace):downward,inwards,upward3)

-wise(inthepositionordirectionof;concerning):clockwise,education-wise(至于）,money-wiseWhite,Sowell,Yanagihara(1989)

StudyofAmericanHeritageWordFrequencyBook(Carroll,Davies,Richmond,1971)

Usingthislistofhighfrequencywords:

Prefixes:Un-aloneaccountsfor26%oftheprefixedwords.Un-,re-,andin-(not)accountfor51%ofthetotal.Un-,re-,in-,anddis-accountfor58%ofthetotal.Suffixes:-s,-es,ing,accountfor65%ofsuffixedwords.Just10suffixesaccountfor85%ofsuffixedwords---s,-es,-ing,-ly,-er,-ion,-able,-al,-y,-nessSomemodernaffixes1.Mega-(verylarge)Megacity特大城市Megadestruction大毀滅Megagame大賽Megastructure超級建筑Megarich十分富有Megaversity超級大學2.Cyber-(automatic/computerized)Cyberculture自動化/電腦化社會Cyberbrain電腦Cyberart電腦藝術/計算機技術Cyber-security網(wǎng)絡安全Cyber-space網(wǎng)絡虛擬空間Cyber-privacy網(wǎng)絡隱私3.Hyper-(super/toomuch)Hypermedia超媒體Hyperlinks超級鏈接Hyperfriction過度摩擦Hyperslow極緩慢的Hyberverbal說話過多的4.Info-(information)Infotech信息技術Infocenter信息中心Infotainment信息娛樂節(jié)目Infomercial信息商業(yè)化的5.nano-(onebillionth)Nanotech納米技術Nanofabrication納米加工Nanocomputer超高速電腦6.techno-(technology)Technomania技術狂Technophobia恐技術癥Technocracy專家政治論techno-centric以技術為中心的7.tele-(long-distancetransfer/television)Telead電話約定廣告Telrbanking電腦化銀行業(yè)務Telebus電話叫車/租車Telecenter遠程計算中心Tele-education遠程教育8.E-(electronic)E-mail電子郵件E-text電子文本E-zine電子雜志E-cash電子貨幣9.Of-(office)Oftel辦公電話Oflot公司內(nèi)部停車場地Ofbank銀行辦事處10.-bot(robot)Knowbot智力機器人Mobot移動機器人Microbot微型機器人11.–size(measurements)Downsize縮小Upsize放大Rightsize按比例制作life-size與實物大小一樣的12.–ware(articlesofthesamekind)Glassware玻璃器皿Soft/hardware軟/硬件Middleware中間設備Silverware銀器Warehouse倉庫13.-centric(ofthecenter/taking…asthecenter)User-centric以用戶為中心的Male-centric以男士為主的Net-CentricWar網(wǎng)絡中心戰(zhàn)IBMcompatible-centric以銷售IBM兼容機為主的(二).Structureofderivativesa.

centeredonfreeroot

prefix+freeroot freeroot+suffixprefix+freeroot+suffixb.

centeredonboundrootprefix+boundrootboundroot+suffixprefix+boundroot+suffix2.CompoundingA.Definition:Compoundingorcompositionisaword-formationprocessconsistingofjoiningtwoormorebasestoformanewunit,acompoundword.Compoundsarewritteninvariousways,e.g.(a)solid:airtight（密封的）,airmail;(b)hyphenated:air-conditioning;(c)open:airforce,airraid（空襲）.B.CharacteristicsofCompoundsa.

PhoneticfeaturesIncompoundsthewordstressusuallyoccursonthefirstelementwhereasinnounphrasesthesecondelementisgenerallystressedifthereisonlyonestress.Incasesoftwostresses,thecompoundhastheprimarystressonthefirstelementandthesecondarystress,ifany,onthesecondwhereastheoppositeistrueoffreephrases,e.g.Compound:a′greenhouse,a′greenhornFreephrases:agreen′house,agreen′hornButthesestresspatternsofcompoundsarenotabsolute.Sometimes,theprimarystressmayalsofallonthesecondconstituentasinbottle-'green,etc.b.

Semanticfeatures

Compoundsaredifferentfromfreephraseinsemanticunity.Everycompoundshouldexpressasingleideaasoneword.Infact,themeaningsofconstituentsarecloselyjoinedtocreateacompoundwithameaningwhichwecaneasilyrecognize.Eg:sunbathe“tospendtimeinstrongsunlightinordertomakethebodybrown”.However,sometimesitsconstituentsarecombinedtoexpressasingleideawithnothingtodowiththemeaningsoftheseconstituents.Eg:

green-eyed,greenfingersGrammaticalfeatures1)Compoundstendtofillasinglegrammaticalslotinasentence,forexample,thatofaverb,anoun,oranadjective.Bad-mouthusedasaverbcantakethethirdpersonsingular–sandthepasttensemarker–ed,e.g.“Hebad-mouthedme.’(BoligerandSears,1981)2)Inadjective-plus-nouncompounds,theadjectiveelementcannottaketheinflectionalsuffixes.Comparethefollowing:Compounds

FreephrasesfineartfinerartredtapereddesttapehotlinehotterlineC.ClassificationofCompounds

Whenitcomestothewordclassofacompound,itisusuallythesecondwordinatwo-wordcompoundthatdeterminesthewordclassofthecompoundconcerned.Thiselementiscalledtheheadofthecompound.Forexample,boardisanoun,blackboardisalsoanoun,anddreamanddaydreamareofthesamewordclass.Theheadisusuallyanoun,averb,oranadjective.TypesofcompoundsNouncompoundsAdjectivecompoundsVerbcompoundsC.ClassificationofCompounds1.Nouncompounds:Thisisthecommonesttype,andnewspecimensareconstantlybeingformed.一）nouncompounds(1)n+n:moonwalk，eveningschool

(2)n+v:toothache,bloodtest

(3)v+n:crybaby,tell-tale

(4)a+n:deadline,blueprint(5)n+v-ingbrainwashing,air-conditioning(6)

v-ing+n:cleaninglady,wadingbird(涉水鳥)(7)n+v-er:stockholder,crimereporter

(8)adv+v:outbreak,downfall

(9)v+adv:sit-in,have-not

(10)

v-ing+adv:going-over,carryings-on

(11)adv+v-ing:up-bringing二)Nouncompoundsaresubclassifiedaccordingtothesyntacticrelationofthecompoundingelements:(a)Subjectandverb:Theverbmaytaketheformofthebaseorthatofthebaseplus–ing.Examplesareheadache“theheadaches”,heartbeat“theheartbeats”;revolvingdoor“thedoorrevolves”.(b)Verbandobject:Theverbmaytaketheformofthebaseorthatofthebase+-ing.Forexample:birthcontrol

“tocontrolbirth”;housekeeping“tokeephouse”;anddressmaking“tomakedresses”.Thetypehousekeepinganddressmakingisveryproductive.(c)Verbandadverbial:Verbalnounin–ing

+adverbial(consistingofaprepositionalphrase)e.g.swimmingpool“toswiminthepoolorapoolforswimming”;typingpaper“totypeonpaper”.Itisaveryproductivetype.(d)Subjectandobject:steamboat“steampowerstheboat”;honeybee“thebeeproduceshoney.”(e)Restrictiverelation:thefirstelementrestrictsthemeaningofthesecond:raindrop“adropofrain”;eveningschool“aschoolintheevening”;tablecloth“aclothfortable”;breakfasttime“timeforbreakfast”.Thetypesofwordsliketableclothandbreakfasttimeexpressingpurposeisveryproductive.(f)Appositiverelation:thefirstelementisinappositiontothesecondone:e.g.apeasantgirl“thegirlisapeasant”;apinetree“thetreeisapine”.Compoundnounscanalsobeformedfromphrasalverbs.ThistypeisverycommonincontemporaryEnglish.Examplesare:sit-in,dropout,phone-in（聽眾熱線電話直播節(jié)目）,breakdown,setbackandtake-off.2.Adjectivecompounds:Adjectivecompoundsarealsosubclassifiedaccordingtothesyntacticrelationofthecompoundingelements:(a)Subjectandverb:Theverbisintheformofpastparticiple.Examplesarethunder-struck(houses)“thunderstruckthehouses”;suntanned(skin)“suntannedtheskin”.frost-bitten（vegetables）:frostbitethevegetablesThistypeishighlyproductive.(b)Verbandobject:theverbisintheformofpresentparticiple,e.g.fault-finding“tofindfault”;record-breakingpeaceloving

“tolovepeace”.Itisaproductivetype.(c)Verbandadverbial:Theverbisintheformofpresentparticipleorpastparticiple:e.g.hardworking;well-behaved,quick-frozen,new-laid(d)Nounandadjective:Thenoundenotingaspect.Itisveryproductivetypewithcertainadjectivesthatarecomplementedbypreposition+noun;e.g.taxfree“freefromtax”;seasick“sickduetosailingonthesea”;fireproof“proofagainstfire”.Thenoundenotingthethingwithwhichtheadjectiveiscompared(as+adjective+as+noun,adjectivelikenoun);e.g.oceangreen“asgreenasocean”;crystal-clear“asclearasacrystal”;shoulder-high“ashighasshoulders”.(e)Coordinatingrelationship:Thetwoadjectivesareinacoordinatingrelationship,e.g.bittersweet“sweetbutbitter”;Sino-U.S.relations“relationbetweenChinaandtheU.S.”deaf-mute:deafandmute3.VerbcompoundsVerbcompoundsfallintotwomaingroupsaccordingtotheirmethodofformation:(a)Thoseformedbyback-formation（逆生法）:Back-formationisa“reversal”ofderivation.Manyverbcompoundareformedbydroppingthesupposedsuffixeser,tionoring,etc.fromtheexitingnouns.Forexample,house-keepisformedbydeleting–ingand–erfromhousekeepingandhousekeeper,whichenteredthelanguagemuchearlier.Otherexamplesare:tovacuumclean(formvacuumcleaner);（真空吸塵器）tobabysit(frombabysittingandbabysitter);towindowshop(fromwindow-shopping).tomassproduce(frommassproduction)(b)Thoseformedbyconversion（轉(zhuǎn)化法）.Inthiscase,theverbcompoundsareconvertedfromnouncompounds;e.g.tonickname tohoneymoon tooutlinetomachine-guntosnowball,etc.Theseverbcompoundsareveryoftenusedincolloquialspeech.ThedifferencesbetweencompoundsandfreephrasesWhentwowordsareputtogether,theymayformeitheracompound(e.g.greenhouse)orafreephrase(agreenhouse).Thetwodifferinthefollowingaspects:(1)Semanticsacompoundoccursasaninseparablesemanticunitthatdiffersinmeaningfromafreephrase.Themeaningofafreephraseisalmostalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Forinstance,“agreenhouse”is“ahousewhichisgreen”.Butthemeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumtotalofthemeaningsofitscomponents.Forexample,“greenhouse”refersto“abuildinginwhichthetemperatureandhumiditycanberegulatedforthecultivationofdelicateorout-ofseasonplants”.

Moreexamplesare:dogdays:thehottestdaysoftheyearblueblood:thequalityofbeinganoblemanbybirth.(2)PhonologyPhonologically,manycompoundshaveaso-calledcompoundaccent,i.e.astressonthefirstelement(`____),as`blacklist,`blackbird;compoundaccentisdifferentfromphraseaccent,whichhasasecondarystressonthefirstelementandthemainstressonthesecondelement(\__`__),asin\black`bird.(3)OrthographyCompoundscanbewritteninthefollowingthreeways:(a)solid:airtight(b)hyphenated:knee-high(c)open:airraidItisdifficulttodecidewhichformshouldbeusedascriterion;forsometimesthesamecompoundmayappearinthreedifferentforms,e.g.flowerpot,flower-pot,flowerpot.Thegeneraltendencyisforcompoundstobewritten“solid”assoonastheyhavegainedpermanentstatus;butafreephraseisalwayswrittenopen.3.Conversion-zeroderivationTheprocessofconvertingwordsfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithoutaddinganyderivativeelementiscalledconversionorzeroderivation.(零位派生).Ex:thenoun“father”in“Heisafatherofthreechildren”theverb“father”in“Hefatheredthreeorphans”

TypesofconversionAmongthevarioustypesofconversion,theconversionbetweennounandverbisthemostproductive.2.Noun----verbconversion1）.名詞轉(zhuǎn)化為動詞:Almostallmonomorphemicverbscanbeconvertedintonouns.Thenewwordsobtainedthroughconversionareu