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Chapter11
SecondLanguageAcquisitionMainTasks☆Whatissecondlanguageacquisition?☆Connectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisition☆Contrastiveanalysis(CA);Erroranalysis(EA)☆Interlanguage☆Theroleofthenativelanguageinsecondlanguagelearning☆Krashen’sInputHypothesis☆Individualdifferences☆PedagogicalimplicationsfromSLAWhatissecondlanguageacquisition?
Secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.
指對人在習得母語后是如何習得第二語言進行系統(tǒng)研究。
Connectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisition
Thefirstlanguagestudyservesasabasisforperceivingandunderstandingnewfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning.Secondlanguageacquisitionisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisitionandthesecondlanguagelearnersgenerallyfailtoattainnative-likecompetence.SomecomparisonsFigure1(P156)NL(nativelanguage)本國語TL(targetlanguage)目的語IL(interlanguage)中介語
Contrastiveanalysis(CA)
對比分析ContrastiveAnalysis(knownasCA)cameintofashioninthe1960s.positivetransfer
(正遷移):facilitatetargetlanguagelearning.
negativetransfer(負遷移
):interfere
targetlanguagelearning.
ErrorAnalysis(EA)錯誤分析Bythelate1960s,erroranalysishadtakentheplaceofcontrastiveanalysisandentereditsheydayinthe1970s.
Differentfromcontrastiveanalysis,erroranalysisgavelessconsiderationtolearners'nativelanguage.Twomainsortsoferrors:interlingualerrors(語際錯誤
)andintralingualerrors(語內(nèi)錯誤
).
Interlingualerrors
(語際錯誤
)Theinterlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursal,etc.Intralingualerrors
(語內(nèi)錯誤
)Theintralingualerrorsmainlyresultfromfaultyorpartialleaningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Therearelearningstrategies-basederrors,communicationstrategies-basederrors,inducederrors,andsomecompoundandambiguouserrors.Overgeneralization(過度概括)Overgeneralizationisdefinedastheuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.
Forexample:Janeadvisedmetogiveupsmoking.Janetoldmetogiveupsmoking.*Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking.Cross-association(互相聯(lián)想)InEnglishwesometimesmaycomeacrosswordswhicharesimilarinmeaning.Theirspellingandpronunciationarealsoalike.Thecloseassociationofthetwooftenleadstoconfusion.Thisaspectofinternalinterferenceisoftenreferredascross-association.Forexample:other/another;much/many
ErrorsandMistakes錯誤和語誤Errors(錯誤)isdefinedasunintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-correctedbythelearner,whichsuggestsfailureincompetence.(語言能力上的失敗)Mistakes(語誤)isdefinedaseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandself-corrigible,whichsuggestsfailureinperformance.(語言行為上的失敗)
Interlanguage
(中介語)ProposedbyS.PitCorderandLarrySelinker.Theconceptofinterlanguagewasestablishedaslearners’independentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.
中介語這一概念,被確立為學習者獨立于第二語言的系統(tǒng)。它既不是本族語又不是第二語言,而是處于本族語和目的語之間的連續(xù)體和近似體。ImportantcharacteristicsofInterlanguagesystematicity
(系統(tǒng)性)permeability(滲透性)fossilization(語言石化現(xiàn)象)☆Fossilizationhasbecomeoneofthemainfeaturesofinterlanguage.
語言石化現(xiàn)象已經(jīng)成為中介語的主要特征之一。Fossilization(語言石化現(xiàn)象)
Fossilizationisdefinedas(insecondandforeignlanguageteaching)aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.
Theroleofnativelanguageinsecondlanguagelearning
Behaviorism:languagetransfer(positiveornegative)Mentalists:Learnersusetheirfirstlanguagetoformulatesecondlanguagelearninghypothesis.Inthissense,nativelanguagefunctionsasakindof"inputfrominside",thereforetransferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.Recentstudies:therearethreeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetransferinsecondlanguagelearning:a)alearner'spsychology;b)perceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistance;c)actualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage.
Thenativelanguageinfluencesnotonlyoccurdirectlyatphonological,lexical,semantic,syntacticalordiscoursallevelsbutalsodirectlyreflectatcognitivelevel,whichisthebasisoftheorganizationalprinciplesoflanguages.SecondlanguagelearningmodelsandtheoriesBehavioristmodel:emphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement.Innatistmodel:stressthathumanbeings,equippedinnatelywithLAD,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequateinput.
Interactionistmodel:arguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.Krashen’sInputHypothesis
克拉申的“輸入假說”Twoindependentmeansorroutesofsecondlanguagelearning:
acquisitionandlearning
(習得和學習)Acquisitionandlearning
Acquisitionisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage,itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.
習得是一個與兒童習得第一語言的方式類似的過程,它是一個沒有任何具體語法規(guī)則學習的潛意識過程。(implicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning,etc.)
Learningisaconsciouslearningofthesecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.
Comprehensibleinput:
“i+l”
Krashenputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceiving
“comprehensibleinput”
(可理解輸入).Hedefinedcomprehensibleinputas"i+l":irepresentslearners'currentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisai+1.
Byprovidingcomprehensibleinputwhichisbithigherthanthelearners'currentlevel,thelearners'LADwillbeactivatedandcontributetoacquisition.Individualdifferences個體差異Peoplelearnasecondorforeignlanguageatdifferentratewithdifferentattainments.Alsopeoplevaryintheirtimeandeffortsspentonlearning,andmostnotablyintheirdifferent
languageaptitudes,
motivation,anduseoflearningstrategies,
ageofacquisition
and
personality,
etc.Languageaptitudes語言能力Languageaptitudeherereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearner'sgeneralintelligence.Ithasbeengenerallyacceptedthatlearnerswhoachievehighscoresinlanguageaptitudetestslearnrapidlyandachievehighproficiencyinsecondlanguagelearning.Motivation動機Motivationrefersto
thelearner'sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Fourtypesofmotivation:
Instrumentalmotivation(工具性動機):
externalgoals:passingexams,financialrewardsorfurtheringacareeretc.Integrativemotivation(融合性動機):
thedrivethatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguagebecauseofthewishtoidentifywiththetargetculture.
Resultativemotivation(結果性動機):
thedrivederivedfromthesuccessfulresultoflearningaforeignlanguage.Intrinsicmotivation(內(nèi)在動機):
learnerslearnthesecondlanguageforenjoymentorpleasurefromlearning.Learningstrategies
學習策略Learningstrategiesarelearners‘conscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.Chamot(1986)andOxford(1990)’sdivision:
Cognitivestrategies(認知策略):
strategiesinvolvedinanalyzing,synthesis,andinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.
Metacognitivestrategies(元認知策略):
thetechniquesinplanning,monitoringandevaluatingone'slearning.
Affect/socialstrategies(情感/社會策略):
dealingwiththewayslearnersinteractorcommunicatewithotherspeakers,nativeornon-native.Cohen(1998)’sdivision
Languagelearningstrategies
includestrategiesforidentifyingthematerialtobelearnt,distinguishingitfromothers,groupingitforeasierlearning,committingthematerialtomemoryetc.Languageusingstrategies
includefoursubsets:retrieval(檢索),rehearsal(背誦),cover(替代)andcommunication(交際)strategies.Somestrategieswhichareusedcommonlybygoodlearners.(P165-166)Ageofacquisition習得的年齡Insecondlanguageacquisition,ifthelearnersstartlearningasecondlanguage
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