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Chapter11

SecondLanguageAcquisitionMainTasks☆Whatissecondlanguageacquisition?☆Connectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisition☆Contrastiveanalysis(CA);Erroranalysis(EA)☆Interlanguage☆Theroleofthenativelanguageinsecondlanguagelearning☆Krashen’sInputHypothesis☆Individualdifferences☆PedagogicalimplicationsfromSLAWhatissecondlanguageacquisition?

Secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.

指對人在習得母語后是如何習得第二語言進行系統(tǒng)研究。

Connectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisition

Thefirstlanguagestudyservesasabasisforperceivingandunderstandingnewfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning.Secondlanguageacquisitionisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisitionandthesecondlanguagelearnersgenerallyfailtoattainnative-likecompetence.SomecomparisonsFigure1(P156)NL(nativelanguage)本國語TL(targetlanguage)目的語IL(interlanguage)中介語

Contrastiveanalysis(CA)

對比分析ContrastiveAnalysis(knownasCA)cameintofashioninthe1960s.positivetransfer

(正遷移):facilitatetargetlanguagelearning.

negativetransfer(負遷移

):interfere

targetlanguagelearning.

ErrorAnalysis(EA)錯誤分析Bythelate1960s,erroranalysishadtakentheplaceofcontrastiveanalysisandentereditsheydayinthe1970s.

Differentfromcontrastiveanalysis,erroranalysisgavelessconsiderationtolearners'nativelanguage.Twomainsortsoferrors:interlingualerrors(語際錯誤

)andintralingualerrors(語內(nèi)錯誤

).

Interlingualerrors

(語際錯誤

)Theinterlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursal,etc.Intralingualerrors

(語內(nèi)錯誤

)Theintralingualerrorsmainlyresultfromfaultyorpartialleaningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Therearelearningstrategies-basederrors,communicationstrategies-basederrors,inducederrors,andsomecompoundandambiguouserrors.Overgeneralization(過度概括)Overgeneralizationisdefinedastheuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.

Forexample:Janeadvisedmetogiveupsmoking.Janetoldmetogiveupsmoking.*Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking.Cross-association(互相聯(lián)想)InEnglishwesometimesmaycomeacrosswordswhicharesimilarinmeaning.Theirspellingandpronunciationarealsoalike.Thecloseassociationofthetwooftenleadstoconfusion.Thisaspectofinternalinterferenceisoftenreferredascross-association.Forexample:other/another;much/many

ErrorsandMistakes錯誤和語誤Errors(錯誤)isdefinedasunintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-correctedbythelearner,whichsuggestsfailureincompetence.(語言能力上的失敗)Mistakes(語誤)isdefinedaseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandself-corrigible,whichsuggestsfailureinperformance.(語言行為上的失敗)

Interlanguage

(中介語)ProposedbyS.PitCorderandLarrySelinker.Theconceptofinterlanguagewasestablishedaslearners’independentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.

中介語這一概念,被確立為學習者獨立于第二語言的系統(tǒng)。它既不是本族語又不是第二語言,而是處于本族語和目的語之間的連續(xù)體和近似體。ImportantcharacteristicsofInterlanguagesystematicity

(系統(tǒng)性)permeability(滲透性)fossilization(語言石化現(xiàn)象)☆Fossilizationhasbecomeoneofthemainfeaturesofinterlanguage.

語言石化現(xiàn)象已經(jīng)成為中介語的主要特征之一。Fossilization(語言石化現(xiàn)象)

Fossilizationisdefinedas(insecondandforeignlanguageteaching)aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.

Theroleofnativelanguageinsecondlanguagelearning

Behaviorism:languagetransfer(positiveornegative)Mentalists:Learnersusetheirfirstlanguagetoformulatesecondlanguagelearninghypothesis.Inthissense,nativelanguagefunctionsasakindof"inputfrominside",thereforetransferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.Recentstudies:therearethreeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetransferinsecondlanguagelearning:a)alearner'spsychology;b)perceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistance;c)actualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage.

Thenativelanguageinfluencesnotonlyoccurdirectlyatphonological,lexical,semantic,syntacticalordiscoursallevelsbutalsodirectlyreflectatcognitivelevel,whichisthebasisoftheorganizationalprinciplesoflanguages.SecondlanguagelearningmodelsandtheoriesBehavioristmodel:emphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement.Innatistmodel:stressthathumanbeings,equippedinnatelywithLAD,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequateinput.

Interactionistmodel:arguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.Krashen’sInputHypothesis

克拉申的“輸入假說”Twoindependentmeansorroutesofsecondlanguagelearning:

acquisitionandlearning

(習得和學習)Acquisitionandlearning

Acquisitionisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage,itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.

習得是一個與兒童習得第一語言的方式類似的過程,它是一個沒有任何具體語法規(guī)則學習的潛意識過程。(implicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning,etc.)

Learningisaconsciouslearningofthesecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.

Comprehensibleinput:

“i+l”

Krashenputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceiving

“comprehensibleinput”

(可理解輸入).Hedefinedcomprehensibleinputas"i+l":irepresentslearners'currentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisai+1.

Byprovidingcomprehensibleinputwhichisbithigherthanthelearners'currentlevel,thelearners'LADwillbeactivatedandcontributetoacquisition.Individualdifferences個體差異Peoplelearnasecondorforeignlanguageatdifferentratewithdifferentattainments.Alsopeoplevaryintheirtimeandeffortsspentonlearning,andmostnotablyintheirdifferent

languageaptitudes,

motivation,anduseoflearningstrategies,

ageofacquisition

and

personality,

etc.Languageaptitudes語言能力Languageaptitudeherereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearner'sgeneralintelligence.Ithasbeengenerallyacceptedthatlearnerswhoachievehighscoresinlanguageaptitudetestslearnrapidlyandachievehighproficiencyinsecondlanguagelearning.Motivation動機Motivationrefersto

thelearner'sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Fourtypesofmotivation:

Instrumentalmotivation(工具性動機):

externalgoals:passingexams,financialrewardsorfurtheringacareeretc.Integrativemotivation(融合性動機):

thedrivethatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguagebecauseofthewishtoidentifywiththetargetculture.

Resultativemotivation(結果性動機):

thedrivederivedfromthesuccessfulresultoflearningaforeignlanguage.Intrinsicmotivation(內(nèi)在動機):

learnerslearnthesecondlanguageforenjoymentorpleasurefromlearning.Learningstrategies

學習策略Learningstrategiesarelearners‘conscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.Chamot(1986)andOxford(1990)’sdivision:

Cognitivestrategies(認知策略):

strategiesinvolvedinanalyzing,synthesis,andinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.

Metacognitivestrategies(元認知策略):

thetechniquesinplanning,monitoringandevaluatingone'slearning.

Affect/socialstrategies(情感/社會策略):

dealingwiththewayslearnersinteractorcommunicatewithotherspeakers,nativeornon-native.Cohen(1998)’sdivision

Languagelearningstrategies

includestrategiesforidentifyingthematerialtobelearnt,distinguishingitfromothers,groupingitforeasierlearning,committingthematerialtomemoryetc.Languageusingstrategies

includefoursubsets:retrieval(檢索),rehearsal(背誦),cover(替代)andcommunication(交際)strategies.Somestrategieswhichareusedcommonlybygoodlearners.(P165-166)Ageofacquisition習得的年齡Insecondlanguageacquisition,ifthelearnersstartlearningasecondlanguage

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