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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10891
TheAccumulationandUtilizationofHumanCapitalovertheDevelopmentSpectrum
FedericoRossiMichaelWeber
WORLDBANKGROUP
PeoplePracticeGroupHumanCapitalProject
September2024
PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10891
Abstract
Thispaperreviewshowhumancapitalisaccumulatedandusedovertheprocessofdevelopment.Ithighlightsthatdifferencesinworkerproductivityarethebyproductsofawidevarietyofinvestmentshappeningatdifferentstagesofthelifecycle,allsubjecttobarriersindevelopingcoun-tries.Moreover,theeffectiveuseofhumantalentintheproductionprocessisakeymediatoroftheeffectofhuman
capitalondevelopment.Itisalsoadriverofhumancapitalaccumulationitself.Inlightofthisinterplaybetweenaccu-mulationandutilization,thepaperdiscussesthepotentialroleofhumancapitalinfacilitatingtheadaptationtoglobalchallengessuchasclimatechange,demographictransitions,andrapidurbanization.
ThispaperisaproductoftheHumanCapitalProject,PeoplePracticeGroup.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat
/prwp
.Theauthorsmaybecontactedatmweber1@.
ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.
ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam
TheAccumulationandUtilizationofHumanCapitalovertheDevelopmentSpectrum
FedericoRossi*MichaelWeber?
Keywords:HumanCapitalAccumulation,HumanCapitalandGrowthJELCodes:J24,O15,I25
*UniversityofWarwick,DepartmentofEconomics,CoventryCV47AL,UnitedKingdom.Email:federico.rossi@warwick.ac.uk.
?WorldBankandIZA,Bonn.Email:mweber1@.
WearegratefultoAartKraayandOmarAriasforusefulcommentsanddiscussions.
1
1Introduction
Overthepastfewdecades,humancapitalhasbeenacentralingredientoftheprocessofeconomicdevelopment.TheXXthcenturyhasseenunprecedentedincreasesineducationalattainmentacrosstheworld,aswellasimportantimprovementsinthehealthandnutritionoftheglobalpopulation.Still,largecross-countrygapspersistinseveralformsofhumancapital,andagrowingliteratureinmacro-developmentarguesthatthesegapscontributeimportantlyto
differencesinthestandardsoflivingsbetweenrichandpoorcountries(Rossi,
2020)
.
Inwhichwaysishumancapitalaccumulatedacrossdifferentcountries?Through
whichchannelsdoeshumancapitalcontributetodevelopment?Howisthiscontributionlikelytochangeinthefuture?Thispaperprovidesareviewoftheacademicliteraturerel-evanttothesequestions.Ouraimistoofferacomprehensiveoverviewofthemultifacetedprocessesoftheaccumulationandutilizationofhumancapital,highlightingthekeychallengesthatcountriesatdifferentstagesofdevelopmentfaceinpromotingtheseprocessesandtherolesofpolicyinalleviatingthesechallenges.Ourworkcomplementsandaddstoseveralreviews
onhumancapitalandeconomicdevelopment,suchas
KlenowandRodrguez-Clare
(1997),
Caselli
(2010),
FlabbiandGatti
(2018),and
Rossi
(2020),whicharemostlyfocusedonthe
measurementofthecontributionofskillsforcross-andwithin-countryincomegaps.
Tosetthestagefortherestofthepaper,itisusefultostartfromadefinitionofhumancapital.
AcemogluandAutor
(2011)definehumancapitalas“anystockofknowledgeorchar
-acteristicstheworkerhas(eitherinnateoracquired)thatcontributestohisorherproductivity.”Twoaspectsofthisdefinitionareworthnoticingfromtheonset.First,humancapitalisaverybroadconcept,whichincludecognitiveskillsbutalsomanyothercharacteristicspotentiallyaf-fectingproductivity,suchashealthandphysicaltraits,personality,socio-emotionalskills,tacitandexplicitknowledge,culture,andsoon.Second,thedefinitionputsnorestrictionsonhowandwhentheserelevantcharacteristicsareacquired.Inotherwords,formaleducationisbynomeanstheonlywaytoaccumulatehumancapital;onthecontrary,humancapitalaccumulationcanstartinuteroandthentakeplacethroughoutthewholelifecycle,fromearlychildhoodtolateadulthood.
Indeed,Section2reviewsevidencesupportingtheideathathumancapitalgaps,bothwithinandacrosscountries,areduetodifferencesinavarietyofformsofinvestments.In-dividualsinlow-incomecountriesfacestrongerbarrierstohumancapitalaccumulationthrough-outthelifecycle,frombeforebirthuntiloldage,andthesebarriersreinforceeachotherduetodynamiccomplementaritiesbetweenhumancapitalinvestments.Theresultinghumancap-italgapsgowellbeyondcognitiveskills,andincludephysicalhealthaswellasavarietyofnon-cognitivetraits.Fromapolicyperspective,anarrowfocusoneducationalattainmentislikelytobeineffective,giventhevarietyofenvironmentsandstagesofthelifecycle(beyondschooling)wherehumancapitalisaccumulated.
Section3arguesthattheeffectsofhumancapitalaccumulationoneconomicdevel-
2
opmentarecruciallymediatedbythewayhumancapitalisutilizedintheproductionprocess.Wediscussthekeyforcesthatshapetheallocationofhumantalentacrosssectors,jobs,andfirms,highlightinghowthevaryingavailabilityofhigh-skilllaboraffectstheorgani-zationofproductioninrichandpoorcountries.Severalfrictionspreventanefficientallocationoftalentinpoorcountries,partiallyjeopardizingtheeffectivenessoftheaccumulationofin-vestmentsthathavebeentakingplaceoverthepastfewdecades.Moreover,humancapitalac-cumulationisitselfafunctionofopportunitiesforutilization,asnewgenerationshavestrongerincentivestoinvestinskillsthatcanbeutilizedproperlyintheproductionprocess.
Inlightofthisinterplaybetweenaccumulationandutilization,Section4concludesthepaperbyprovidinganoutlookonthefutureimportanceofhumancapitalforseveralmega-trendsthataretransformingthewayproductionisorganized.Wearguethathumancapitalwilllikelyplayanimportantroleinshapingtheeffectsofclimatechange,demographicchange,andurbanizationontheeconomy.Moreresearchisneededtoidentifythespecificskillsandtraitsthataremorerelevantforeachofthesetrends,aswellasthebestwaystoencouragetheiraccumulationandeffectiveutilization.Overall,thesetrendsarealllikelytoincreasethedemandforhighlyspecializedskills,whichleadsustospeculatethattheXXIcenturywillcontinuethehumancapitalera.
2Howandwhenishumancapitalaccumulated?
2.1ConceptualFramework
Humancapitalaccumulatesandmultipliesacrossdifferentstagesoverthelifecycle(Fig-ure
I)
.Theproductivecapacityofanindividualisshapedbytheskillsandtraitsacquiredinearlychildhood,duringadolescence(throughformalschoolingandotherchannels),duringtheworkingageperiod(throughtertiaryeducation,vocationaltraining,andlearningonthejob)andatolderages.Thisaccumulationprocessappliesbothtocognitiveskillsandotherformsofhumancapital,suchasnon-cognitiveskills,health,andculture.Alargeempiricalliteraturedocumentsthatthehumancapitalaccumulationprocessfeaturesdynamiccomplementarity,suchthattheskillsaccumulatedatonestageaffecttheproductivityoffurtherinvestmentsun-dertakenatlaterstages.Thisimpliesthatbarrierstohumancapitalaccumulationatearlystagesofthelifecycleareparticularlycostly.Inaddition,investmentsinhumancapital,suchasim-provinghealth,nutrition,andeducation,haveamultiplicativeeffectovertime,astheynotonlyenhanceanindividual’sproductivityandearningspotential,butalsobenefitfuturegenerationsbycreatingavirtuouscycleofdevelopment.
Ateachstage,theaccumulationofhumancapitalisdrivenbyexpectedreturnsandperceivedcosts.Bothreturnsandcostsdependontheeconomicenvironment,availableop-portunities,aswellasahostofexternalshocks,asrepresentedinFigure
I.
Forexample,in-dividualsmightchoosetoacquirelessschoolingwhenmostemploymentopportunitiesarein
3
sectorswithlowskillrequirements(lowreturn),whentheopportunitycostofchildlaborishigh(highperceivedcost),andwhenawardisruptstheeconomyandeducationalsystem(lowreturnandhighcost).Inaddition,theincentivestoaccumulatehumancapitaltodaydependonfutureaccumulationopportunities,giventhedynamiccomplementarityoftheseinvestments.Allthesefactorsarelikelytovarydramaticallyoverthedevelopmentspectrum,contributingtothecorrelationbetweenvariousformsofhumancapitalandeconomicdevelopment.
Thenextsubsectionsreviewtheexistingevidenceonsomeofthespecificfactorsaf-fectinghumancapitalaccumulationateachstagerepresentedinFigure
I,emphasizing
whetherandhowtheyvaryacrosscountries.Giventhebroadscopeintermsofthetypesofhumancapitalinvestmentsbeingconsideredandthegoalofkeepingacross-countryper-spective,thisreviewabstractsfromimportantissuesonthepracticalimplementationofeachoftheseinvestments,onwhichtheevidenceismorescatteredandcountry-specific
.1
Laterinthepaper(Section
3),thediscussionwillturntohowtheutilizationoftheskillsacquiredat
differentstagesshapesgrowthanddevelopment.
FigureI:HumanCapitalAccumulationovertheLifeCycle
2.2EarlyChildhoodandParentalInputs
Humancapitalaccumulationstartsbeforebirth.Anextensiveliteraturesuggeststhecourseoffetaldevelopmentandthequalityofthein-uteroenvironmentareimportantdeterminants
ofhealthconditionsandoverallproductivitylaterinlife(Barker,
1990;
AlmondandCurrie,
2011b)
.Toestablishcausality,severalpapersstudyrandomshocksaffectingpregnantmothers,
1Thisincludesimportantissuesonthedeliveryofformaleducation,suchastheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofprivateandpublicprovision.
4
suchaspandemics(Almond,2006),conflict(Lee,2014),orfamilybereavements(Persson
andRossin-Slater,2016),typicallyconcludingthatchildrenofmothersaffectedbynegativeshocksarecharacterizedbyhigherincidenceofvariousdiseases,lowereducationalattainmentandpoorerlabormarketoutcomesduringadulthood.Humancapitaldifferencesduetopre-birthconditionsplausiblycontributetoexacerbateinequalitieswithinandacrosscountries,asdisadvantagedhouseholdsaregenerallymoreexposedtonegativeshocksandpoornutrition.
Earlyexposuretopoornutritionanddiseasesimpairshumancapitalaccumulationovertherestofthelifecycle
(CurrieandVogl,
2013)
.Policyinterventionsthatprovidefoodsupplementstochildrenindevelopingcountriesareoftenassociatedwithlargegainsintermsofeducationalattainmentandcognitivedevelopment,asshownforexamplein
Fieldetal.
(2009)foraniodinesupplementationprograminTanzaniaand
Maluccioetal.
(2003)inthe
contextofarandomizedexperimentprovidinghigh-proteindrinksinGuatemala.Inaddition,
eradicationeffortsfordiseasessuchasmalaria(Lucas,
2010)andpneumonia(Bhalotraand
Venkataramani,
2011)areassociatedwithlife-timebenefitsintermsofschoolingandearnings
forcohortscoveredbytheseprogramsduringearlychildhood.Theseestimatesmightevenunderstatetheeffectsofimprovingnutritionandreducingexposuretodiseasesbecauseofmortalityselection,i.e.,theideathatreductionsinmortalitymightbeassociatedwithlower
averagehealthoutcomesifrelativelyunhealthyindividualsaremorelikelytodie(Currieand
Vogl,
2013)
.
Inaddition,thereisgrowingevidencethatpollutionexperiencedduringchildhoodisanotherkeydeterminantofhumancapitalformation.Severalstudiesshowthatenviron-
mentswithstrongexposuretocarbonmonoxide(Currieetal.,
2009),lead(Troesken,
2008),
andotherairborneparticulates(ChayandGreenstone,
2003)areassociatedwithhighinfant
mortalityandlowbirthweight.Theevidence(mostlyfromrichcountrieswherelongpanelsaremorereadilyavailable)suggeststhatthisearlyexposurealsohaslong-termconsequences.Forexample,
Almondetal.
(2009)findthatSwedishchildrenmoreexposedtoradioactive
falloutfollowingtheChernobyldisasterperformworseinsecondaryschool,while
Ferrieet
al.
(2012)documentadversecognitiveeffectsofearlyleadexposureforUSArmyenlistees
.Thesesourcesofdisruptiontohumancapitalformationarelikelytobeparticularlyimportantindevelopingcountries,wherelevelsofpollutionaremuchhigherthanwhatwasobserved
historicallyinthedevelopedworld(CurrieandVogl,
2013)
.
Alargebodyofworkestablishesthatskillsacquiredduringearlychildhoodhaveanimportantimpactonadultoutcomes
(AlmondandCurrie,
2011a)
.Akeyreasonforthisisthatinvestmentsinskillsfeatureimportantdynamiccomplementarities:acquiringskillsandpreservinghealthearlyonfacilitatesthefurtheraccumulationofskillslateroninthelifecycle
(HeckmanandMosso,
2014)
.Theinvestmentsidentifiedasimportantincludethequantity
andqualityofparentaltimewithchildren(DelBocaetal.,
2013),theparentalinvolvement
inchildren’seducation(HeckmanandMosso,
2014)aswellasthequalityofotherformsof
childcare(Fortetal.,
2020)
.Theseresultshighlighttheimportanceofactingearlytoclose
5
humancapitalinequalities,asinvestmentsinyoungadultslackingsuitablefoundationsofbasic
skillsarerelativelylesseffective(HeckmanandMosso,
2014)
.Theliteratureincludesseveral
evaluationsofhighlycosteffectiveinterventions;forexample,
Garcaetal.
(2020)showthat
twoearlychildhoodprogramsimplementedintheUnitedStatesin1970shadsizeablepositiveimpactsontheparticipants’education,health,andlabormarketoutcomesoverthelifecycle.Thebenefitsoftheseprogramsareevenlargerwhentheirintergenerationaleffectsaretaken
intoaccount(Daruich,
2018;
Garciaetal.,
2021)
.
Thisliteraturehighlightstheimportantroleplayedbynoncognitiveskills,suchasself-confidenceanddiscipline,whicharefoundtofostersubsequentcognitivedevelop-ment
(Cunhaetal.,
2010)
.Animplicationofthisisthatmentoringandguidancedirectedatfosteringcharacterandpersonalityskillsareoftenimportantingredientsofsuccessfulearlychildhoodinterventions;forexample,
Heckmanetal.
(2013)showthatmostofthepositive
impactofaUSpre-schoolprogramonadultoutcomesisduetoimprovementsinnoncogni-tiveskills.Importantly,noncognitiveskillsalsoappeartoberelativelymoremalleableduringadolescenceandearlyadulthood,suggestingthatremedialprogramstargetingtheseskillscanbesomewhateffectiveinclosingexistinggaps,eventhoughearlierinterventionsleadtolarger
returns(HeckmanandMosso,
2014)
.Moreover,accountingfortheeffectsonnoncognitiveskillsiscrucialtoproperlyevaluatetheeffectsofpoliciesinvolvingmonetarytransfersortax
creditsforparents(Morchio,
2022)
.
Whileitisbroadlyacceptedthatearlychildhoodinputscontributetowithincountryinequalities,theevidenceisscarceronwhethertheyarealsoimportanttoexplaincross-countrygaps.
Schoellman
(2016)showsthatlabormarketoutcomesofrefugeesarrivedin
theUSduringearlychildhoodareindependentoftheageofarrival;inotherwords,spend-inganextrayearinarichcountryenvironmentdoesnotsignificantlyboosttheformationofearlychildhoodhumancapital.Ontheotherhand,parentsinpoorcountriesplausiblyfacestrongerinformational,monetaryandmoregenerallypoverty-drivenconstraintsthatleadto
under-investmentinyoungchildren(Attanasioetal.,
2021)
.Relatedly,
DePhilippisandRossi
(2021)documentthatparentalinfluencecontributestocross-countrydifferencesinstandard
-izedtestperformance.Moreworkisneededtoevaluatethequantitativeimportanceofparentalinputsforoverallhumancapitalaccumulationandeconomicdevelopment.
2.3Adolescence
2.3.1FormalSchooling
Alargebodyofevidenceshowsthatformalschoolingisakeydeterminantofworkers’productivity.EstimatesofMincerianregressionsfromseveralcountriesshowthatanextrayearofschoolingisassociatedwithabout10%higherwages,withlimitedvariationbetween
richandpoorcountries(Casellietal.,
2016)
.Whileinprinciplethesecorrelationscouldreflectdifferencesinunobservedability,estimatesbasedoninstrumentalvariablestrategiessuggest
SWE
NU
HKG
BAZAFSURRUANZ
UVRCBLROMN
KWT
CZEDAEUT
SVK
BHS
USA
KHMCMRLSO
BLZ
CPV
LAOPHL
SLE
KGHA
VEN
MOZ
TGO
ETH
JAM
thatthecausaleffectofschoolingisofasimilarmagnitude(Card,
1999)
.Moreover,schooling
isassociatedwithabroadvarietyofdesirableoutcomes,suchaslowercrime(Lochnerand
Moretti,
2004),highercivicparticipation(Milliganetal.,
2004),improvementsinchildhealth
(CurrieandMoretti,
2003),andhigherwellbeing(Easterbrooketal.,
2015)
.
Formaleducationalattainmentvariessubstantiallyacrossrichandpoorcountries.Figure
IIa
displaystheaverageyearsofschoolingoftheadultpopulationagainstGDPperworker.In2015,theaverageworkerinNorwaywasahigh-schoolgraduate(about12yearsofschooling),thecorrespondingaverageworkerinMozambiquehadnotcompletedprimaryed-ucation(about3yearsofschooling).Whilemostcountriesarerelativelyclosetouniversalen-rollmentinprimaryschools,largegapsremainforwhatconcernssecondaryschoolenrollment(Figure
IIb)
.Alargedevelopmentaccountingliteraturequantifiesthecontributionofthesegapsineducationalattainmentinexplainingcross-countryincomedifferences.Theemerging
consensusisthatthiscontributionislimited:evenlow-educatedworkersinrichcountriesaremuchricherthanhigh-educatedworkersinpoorcountries,leavinglittlespacefortheeduca-tionalcompositiontoaccountforincomegaps(see
Rossi,
2020,forareview)
.
FigureII:EducationalAttainmentandDevelopment
(a)AverageYearsofSchooling
AverageYearsofSchooling(2015)
15
10
5
0
TJK
KGZ VEN
BLZ
DA
JAM
M
BOL
USA
SVKESTKPNBRDEUCP
CZEISRCANDNKNOR
URMSRBLVPOTULMLTFBITNENNLDARE
HRRUNASKIRLLUX
BGRROKAUZ
CHLFRA
ALKABMYRTTCOEINPLAUT
ECUMUSMAC
MNPJIPRTQAT
JORARGPAN
PH
LGYILABMEX
URY
VNMSLVTUN
RWAMMRSWZ
ZWEIDNCHNTI
TUR
ZMBKENNIYRIRQDZA
CODGHAEGY
KWT
LSOCDINDLAOMDV
CMRNAM
BGD
TGOTZA
MWIHUGTIAPAKMGAT
LBRGMBMCRI
CAFSLEYEPBLENKHMSDN
MOZ
SEN
BDINERMLI
789101112
LogGDPperworkerinPPP(2015)
(b)EnrollmentRate
NetEnrollmentRate(%,2015)
100
80
60
40
20
NOR
IRL
BRCE
MNFOINSMIPRTNMFNCIANK
NPLTJK
PSE
STP
GRDSRBLVAGPTNOETFLNANDNOR
BRBBAKAZLTUIBRSWEIRL
ARELUXMACQAT
UZBARCGHLUNMLTIDSHKG
BGRHRVCZEBHRUSA
PSEATGMUTURSVKDAEUWTBRCELUX
TCD
HND
KGZDMAPABRACRIMERYVGB
MAC
CIV
VEN
SEN
BMOLDAIDNCOTHALSYC
GMB
CPVJAM
BFA
BLZ
DOM
PAN
BHS
BDI
STPPHSLV
BGD
NERPAKDJIBTN
MLISDNGHALAOSUR
BEN
GTM
GNQ
SWZ
HND
CMRLSO
MWI
DJIPAK
SLE
MHMLI
RWABFA
MRT
Primary
Secondary
MOZTCDR
789101112
LogGDPperworkerinPPP(2015)
Notes:Panel(a)plotsaverageyearsofschoolinginthepopulationabove25againstlogGDPperworker(inPPPterms)in2015.Panel(b)plotsthenetenrollmentrateinprimaryandsecondaryschoolagainstlogGDPperworker(inPPPterms)in2015.Averageyearsofschoolingistakenfrom
BarroandLee
(2013),theenrollment
ratesarefromtheWorldDevelopmentIndicators,whileGDPperworkerisfromversion9.0ofthePennWorld
Tables(Feenstraetal.,
2015)
.
Morerecentwork,however,pointstolargegapsinlearningachievementsandeduca-tionalqualityacrosscountries,whichcompoundtheeffectofgapsinschoolingquantity.Figure
III
displaystheaveragelearningscoresofprimaryandsecondaryschoolstudentsfrom
theHarmonizedLearningOutcomesDatabase(Angristetal.,
2021a),acollectionofaverage
scoresinstandardizedtestsadministeredacross164countries,againstlogGDPperworker.
Studentsinrichcountriesvastlyoutperformtheirpeersinpoorcountries,conditionalonagivenlevelofeducationalattainment;asaresult,thevastmajorityoftheyounggenerationsinthedevelopingworlddonotachievetheskillsneededtoparticipateeffectivelyinmodern
economies(Gustetal.,
2024)
.Inaddition,
Singh
(2019)exploitspaneldatatoshowthatan
6
extrayearofprimaryschoolingisassociatedwithlargerlearninggainsinVietNamcom-paredtootherdevelopingcountries
.2
Morebroadly,largeincreasesineducationalenrollmentinmanydevelopingcountrieshavebeenassociatedwithstagnantorevendeclininglearning
achievementsbylevelofeducation(Pritchett,
2013;
LeNestouretal.,
2023),highlightingthe
challengesbroughtbyrapideducationalexpansions.Severalstudiesarguethatwhenqualitydifferencesareincorporatedinthemeasurementofhumancapital,itscontributioninaccount-ingforcross-countryincomegapscanbesubstantiallylarger(seeforexample
Schoellman,
2012;
Angristetal.,
2021b)
.
FigureIII:AverageLearningScoreandDevelopment
(a)Primary
AverageLearningScore
600
500
400
300
200
SGP
TWN
HKG
RUS
FINLUX
BGRLVAUSAIRLMAC
PSVKVNTCZEITAISRCDTDE
ESPNZRAISL
MDA
NOR
ROUCYP
TJK
KHM
GEOAZECRIMTTOMLTBHR
GABMKD
ARE
SWZ
KENHND
IRNBRAARG
COL
TZAPER
NIC
IDN
SAU
ECU
BWA
BDI
MOZ
GIN
BFAUGATGO
MDG
ETHGMB
TCD
RWA
ZWE
CMR
PH
SDN
LSO
CIGLAO
BLZ
NPL
COE
ZMBGD
GTM
SLV
JAM
L
MAR
PRY
JORZAFDOMNAM
IRQEGY
OMN
PAN
K
WT
QAT
MWI
HTIMLI
NER
CODLBR
SLE
MATK
AGO
NGA
YEM
GHA
GUY
789101112
LogGDPperworkerinPPP(2015)
(b)Secondary
AverageLearningScore
600
550
500
450
400
350
CHN
MAC
CHILUSA
VNM
POLCZEFRADT
HUNISWE
SGP
KORTWNHKG
JNIN
ESTCANNLD
NZLAUS
SVNDEU
LTU
LS
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