Definition and Glossary of Terms術(shù)語的定義和術(shù)語表

1、PAGE PAGE 216Distance Education:Definition and Glossary of Terms, 2nd Edition2006Lee Ayers SchlosserAssociate ProfessorSouthern OregonandMichael SimonsonProgram ProfessorNova Southeastern UniversityTable of Contents TOC f h z HYPERLINK l _Toc126473627 Preface PAGEREF _Toc126473627 h 3 HYPERLINK l _T

2、oc126473628 Defining Distance Education PAGEREF _Toc126473628 h 4 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473629 Emerging Definitions PAGEREF _Toc126473629 h 12 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473630 A Brief History of Distance Education PAGEREF _Toc126473630 h 13 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473631 Correspondence Study PAGEREF _Toc126473631

3、h 14 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473632 Electronic Communications PAGEREF _Toc126473632 h 19 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473633 Distance Teaching Universities PAGEREF _Toc126473633 h 23 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473634 Theory and Distance Education PAGEREF _Toc126473634 h 25 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473635 The Need for Theory PAG

4、EREF _Toc126473635 h 26 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473636 Theory of Independent StudyCharles Wedemeyer PAGEREF _Toc126473636 h 31 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473637 Theory of Independent StudyMichael Moore PAGEREF _Toc126473637 h 33 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473638 Theory of Industrialization of TeachingOtto Peters PAGEREF

5、 _Toc126473638 h 35 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473639 Theory of Interaction and CommunicationBrje Holmberg PAGEREF _Toc126473639 h 42 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473640 AndragogyMalcolm Knowles PAGEREF _Toc126473640 h 48 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473641 A Synthesis of TheoriesHilary Perraton PAGEREF _Toc126473641 h 50 HYPE

6、RLINK l _Toc126473642 Equivalency Theory: An American Theory of Distance Education PAGEREF _Toc126473642 h 53 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473643 A Theoretical Framework for Distance EducationDesmond Keegan PAGEREF _Toc126473643 h 56 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473644 Summary PAGEREF _Toc126473644 h 60 HYPERLINK l _To

7、c126473645 References PAGEREF _Toc126473645 h 65 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473646 Additional Readings PAGEREF _Toc126473646 h 70 HYPERLINK l _Toc126473647 Glossary of Terms PAGEREF _Toc126473647 h 74 TOC f h z HYPERLINK l _Toc125951927 Preface PAGEREF _Toc125951927 h 3 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951928 Defining Di

8、stance Education PAGEREF _Toc125951928 h 4 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951929 Emerging Definitions PAGEREF _Toc125951929 h 12 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951930 A Brief History of Distance Education PAGEREF _Toc125951930 h 13 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951931 Correspondence Study PAGEREF _Toc125951931 h 14 HYPERLINK l _Toc12

9、5951932 Electronic Communications PAGEREF _Toc125951932 h 19 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951933 Distance Teaching Universities PAGEREF _Toc125951933 h 23 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951934 Theory and Distance Education PAGEREF _Toc125951934 h 25 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951935 The Need for Theory PAGEREF _Toc125951935 h 26

10、 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951936 Theory of Independent StudyCharles Wedemeyer PAGEREF _Toc125951936 h 31 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951937 Theory of Independent StudyMichael Moore PAGEREF _Toc125951937 h 33 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951938 Theory of Industrialization of TeachingOtto Peters PAGEREF _Toc125951938 h 35 HYP

11、ERLINK l _Toc125951939 Theory of Interaction and CommunicationBrje Holmberg PAGEREF _Toc125951939 h 42 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951940 AndragogyMalcolm Knowles PAGEREF _Toc125951940 h 48 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951941 A Synthesis of TheoriesHilary Perraton PAGEREF _Toc125951941 h 50 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951942 E

12、quivalency Theory: An American Theory of Distance Education PAGEREF _Toc125951942 h 53 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951943 A Theoretical Framework for Distance EducationDesmond Keegan PAGEREF _Toc125951943 h 56 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951944 Summary PAGEREF _Toc125951944 h 60 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951945 References P

13、AGEREF _Toc125951945 h 65 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951946 Additional Readings PAGEREF _Toc125951946 h 70 HYPERLINK l _Toc125951947 Glossary of Terms PAGEREF _Toc125951947 h 74Preface TC Preface f C l 1 Distance Education has become a major topic of interest in the field of educational communications and t

14、echnology. In response to this interest, the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) published the first edition of Distance Education: Definition and Glossary of Terms in 2002. The second edition of this monograph was begun in 2005. While the definition of distance educatio

15、n was changed only slightly, the glossary of terms was updated significantly under the supervision of Joann Flick and members of AECTs Division of Distance Learning. The definition offered in this second edition is based on background work published in Teaching and Learning at a Distance: Foundation

16、s of Distance Education, 3rd. Edition (2006).Defining Distance Education TC Defining Distance Education f C l 1 Distance education is defined as institution-based, formal education where the learning group is separated, and where interactive telecommunications systems are used to connect learners, r

17、esources, and instructors (Simonson, 2006). Four main components comprise this definition (Figure 1). First is the concept that distance education is institutionally-based. This is what differentiates distance education from self-study. Whereas the institution referred to in this definition could be

18、 a traditional educational school or college, increasingly there are emerging nontraditional institutions that offer education to students at a distance. Businesses, companies, and corporations are offering instruction at a distance. Many educators and trainers are advocating the accreditation of in

19、stitutions that offer distance education to add credibility, improve quality, and eliminate diploma mills.The second component of the definition of distance education is the concept of separation of the teacher and student. Most often, separation is thought of in geographic termsteachers are in one

20、location and students in another. Also implied by the definition is the separation of teachers and students in time. Asynchronous distance education means that instruction is offered and students access it at separate times, or anytime it is convenient to them. Finally, intellectual separation of te

21、achers and learners is important. Obviously, teachers have an understanding of the concepts presented in a course that students do not possess. In this case, the reduction of separation is a goal of the distance education system.Interactive telecommunications is the third component of the definition

22、 of distance education. Interaction can be synchronous or asynchronousat the same time, or at different times. Interaction is critical, but not at the expense of content. In other words, it is important that learners be able to interact with each other, with resources of instruction, and with their

23、teacher. However, interaction should not be the primary characteristic of instruction but should be available, commonplace, and relevant.The words “telecommunications systems” implies electronic media, such as television, telephone, and the Internet, but this term need not be limited to only electro

24、nic media. Telecommunications is defined as “communicating at a distance.” This definition includes communication with the postal system, as in correspondence study, and other nonelectronic methods for communication. Clearly, as electronic telecommunications systems improve and become more pervasive

25、, they likely will be the mainstay of modern distance education systems. However, older, less sophisticated systems of telecommunication will continue to be important.Finally, we examine the concept of connecting learners, resources, and instructors. This means that there are instructors who interac

26、t with learners and that resources are available that permit learning to occur. Resources should be subjected to instructional design procedures that organize them into learning experiences that promote learning, including resources that can be observed, felt, heard, or completed.The definition of d

27、istance education includes these four components. If one or more are missing, then the event is something different, if only slightly, than distance education.This definition is not the only one and certainly is not the first offered for distance education. As a matter of fact, distance education ha

28、s been defined from a number of perspectives over the years. For example, Rudolf Manfred Delling stated in general that distance education is a planned and systematic activity that comprises the choice, didactic preparation and presentation of teaching materials as well as the supervision and suppor

29、t of student learning and which is achieved by bridging the physical distance between student and teacher by means of at least one appropriate technical medium.For Hilary Perraton (1988), distance education is an educational process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by s

30、omeone removed in space and/or time from the learner.The U.S. Department of Educations Office of Educational Research and Improvement defines distance education as “the application of telecommunications and electronic devices which enable students and learners to receive instruction that originates

31、from some distant location.” Typically, the learner may interact with the instructor or program directly, and may meet with the instructor on a periodic basis.Greville Rumble (1989) offered a definition of distance education. He noted that, in any distance education process, there must be: a teacher

32、; one or more students; a course or curriculum that the teacher is capable of teaching and the student is trying to learn; and a contract, implicit or explicit, between the student and the teacher or the institution employing the teacher, which acknowledges their respective teaching-learning roles.D

33、istance education is a method of education in which the learner is physically separate from the teacher. It may be used on its own, or in conjunction with other forms of education, including face-to-face. In distance education, learners are physically separated from the institution that sponsors the

34、 instruction.The teaching/learning contract requires that the student be taught, assessed, given guidance and, where appropriate, prepared for examinations that may or may not be conducted by the institution. This must be accomplished by two-way communication. Learning may be undertaken individually

35、 or in groups; in either case, it is accomplished in the physical absence of the teacher.For Desmond Keegan (1986), the following four definitions were central to an attempt to identify the elements of a single, unifying definition of distance education:The French government, as part of a law passed

36、 in 1971, defined distance education as education which either does not imply the physical presence of the teacher appointed to dispense it in the place where it is received or in which the teacher is present only on occasion or for selected tasks.According to Brje Holmberg, distance education cover

37、s the various forms of study at all levels which are not under the continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises but which, nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and teaching of a supporting organization.Otto Peters empha

38、sized the role of technology, saying that distance teaching/education (Fernunterricht) is a method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes. It is rationalized by the application of division of labor and organizational principles as well as by the extensive use of technical media, especially for

39、 the purpose of reproducing high quality teaching material which makes it possible to instruct great numbers of students at the same time wherever they live. It is an industrialized form of teaching and learning.For Michael Moore, the related concept of “distance teaching” was defined as the family

40、of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviors are executed apart from the learning behaviors, including those that in a contiguous situation would be performed in the learners presence, so that communication between the teacher and the learner must be facilitated by print, electronic, mec

41、hanical or other devices.Keegan identified five main elements of these definitions, using them to compose a comprehensive definition of distance education.The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of the learning process (this distinguishes it from conventional face

42、-to-face education).The influence of an educational organization both in the planning and preparation of learning materials and in the provision of student support services (this distinguishes it from private study and teach-yourself programs).The use of technical mediaprint, audio, video or compute

43、rto unite teacher and learner and carry the content of the course.The provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue (this distinguishes it from other uses of technology in education).The quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the

44、length of the learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals and not in groups, with the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialization purposes.Garrison and Shale (1987) argued that, in light of advances in distance education delivery technologies, Keegans

45、 definition was too narrow and did not correspond to the existing reality to future possibilities. Although declining to offer a definition of distance education, Garrison and Shale offered the following three criteria they regarded as essential for characterizing the distance education process:Dist

46、ance education implies that the majority of educational communication between (among) teacher and student(s) occurs noncontiguously.Distance education must involve two-way communication between (among) teacher and student(s) for the purpose of facilitating and supporting the educational process.Dist

47、ance education uses technology to mediate the necessary two-way communication.Keegans definition and the definitions preceding it define the traditional view of distance education. Rapid changes in society and technology are challenging these traditional definitions.Emerging Definitions TC Emerging

48、Definitions f C l 2 The contemporary period is often characterized as one of unpredictable change. Globalization, brought on by supersonic air travel, satellite television, computer communications, and societal changes, has inspired new ways of looking at distance education. Edwards (1995) uses the

49、term open learning to describe a new way of looking at education in a quickly changing and diverse world. He indicates that distance education and open learning are two distinct approaches to education. Although he does not define the two, he states that distance education provides distance learning

50、 opportunities using mass-produced courseware to a mass market. In contrast, open learning places greater emphasis on the current specific needs and/or markets available by recognizing local requirements and differences instead of delivering an established curriculum. Open learning shifts from mass

51、production and mass consumption to a focus on local and individual needs and requirements. Edwards states that this can occur outside of the traditional organization of education. This is a major difference between his description of open learning and the previous definitions of distance education.A

52、 Brief History of Distance Education TC A Brief History of Distance Education f C l 1 Distance education seems a new idea to most educators of today. However, the concepts that form the basis of distance education are more than a century old. Certainly, distance education has experienced growth and

53、change recently, but the long traditions of the field continue to give it direction for the future. This section offers a brief history of distance education, from correspondence study, to electronic communications, to distance teaching universities.Correspondence Study TC Correspondence Study f C l

54、 2 The roots of distance education are at least 160 years old. An advertisement in a Swedish newspaper in 1833 touted the opportunity to study “Composition through the medium of the Post.” In 1840, Englands newly established penny post allowed Isaac Pitman to offer shorthand instruction via correspo

55、ndence. Three years later, instruction was formalized with the founding of the Phonographic Correspondence Society, precursor of Sir Isaac Pitmans Correspondence Colleges. Distance education, in the form of correspondence study, was established in Germany by Charles Toussaint and Gustav Langenscheid

56、t, who taught language in Berlin. Correspondence study crossed the Atlantic in 1873 when Anna Eliot Ticknor founded a Boston-based society to encourage study at home. The Society to Encourage Studies at Home attracted more than 10,000 students in 24 years. Students of the classical curriculum (mostl

57、y women) corresponded monthly with teachers, who offered guided readings and frequent tests.From 1883 to 1891, academic degrees were authorized by the state of New York through the Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts to students who completed the required summer institutes and correspondence courses.

58、 William Rainey Harper, the Yale professor who headed the program, was effusive in his support of correspondence study, and confident in the future viability of the new educational form: The student who has prepared a certain number of lessons in the correspondence school knows more of the subject t

59、reated in those lessons, and knows it better, than the student who has covered the same ground in the classroom.The day is coming when the work done by correspondence will be greater in amount than that done in the classrooms of our academies and colleges; when the students who shall recite by corre

60、spondence will far outnumber those who make oral recitations.In 1891, Thomas J. Foster, editor of the Mining Herald, a daily newspaper in eastern Pennsylvania, began offering a correspondence course in mining and the prevention of mine accidents. His business developed into the International Corresp