語(yǔ)言學(xué)概論總結(jié)

1、語(yǔ)言學(xué)概論 總結(jié)Chapter 1 - IntroductionPart One Definition of language Design features of language Functions of language Part Two Definition of linguistics The scope of linguistics Important distinctions in linguistics Exercises:1）Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language (2005)

2、A. arbitrariness任意性 B. productivity C. cultural transmission D. finiteness有限性2）The distinction between parole言語(yǔ)and langue 語(yǔ)言was made by _. (2006)A. Halliday C. Saussure索緒爾（瑞士語(yǔ)言學(xué)家）B. Chomsky 喬姆斯基（美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家，轉(zhuǎn)換生成語(yǔ)法的創(chuàng)始人）D. Bloomfield布洛姆菲爾德（美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家教育家） 考點(diǎn)：語(yǔ)言流派的主要代表人物、四對(duì)概念的區(qū)分。3）Language is a tool of communica

3、tion. The symbol “high way closed” on a high way serves _. (2010)A. an expressive function表達(dá)功能B. an informative function信息功能C. a performative function行事/施為功能D. a persuasive function勸說(shuō)功能考點(diǎn)：語(yǔ)言的基本功能。信息功能、人際功能、施為功能、感情功能、寒暄功能、娛樂功能。其中最重要的是信息功能。4）The function of the sentence A nice day, isnt it is _.A. inf

4、ormative B. phatic寒暄功能C. directive指示功能 D. performative1.2.1 What is language P7-8Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 語(yǔ)言是人類用來(lái)交際的任意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。1） Language is a system.Systematic- rule-governed受規(guī)則制約的, elements in it are arranged according

5、to certain rules； cant be combined at will. . *bkli， *I apple eat.2）Language is arbitrary.Arbitrary- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes表示. . “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.3）Language is symbolic符號(hào)的in nature.Symbolic- words are associated with

6、 objects, actions, ideas by convention慣例. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”-by Shakespeare 4）Language is primarily vocal.Vocal- the primary medium基本媒介is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. 5）Language is human-specific. 語(yǔ)言是人類特有的Human-specific- diffe

7、rent from the communication systems other forms of life possess. . bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.1.2.2 The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett):P8-101） Arbitrariness 任意性2） Productivity/Creativity 創(chuàng)造性3） Duality 二重性4） Displacement移位性5） Cultural transmission文化傳遞性1） Arbitra

8、riness-No logical (motivated有積極性的or intrinsic固有的) connection between sounds and meanings.Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, . type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopyn Apes ep gibber db.猴子唧唧叫n Roosters crow. 公雞喔喔叫n Hens cluck. 母雞咯咯嗒n Chicks peep. 小雞唧唧唧n Bulls bellow. Cows moo

9、.老牛哞哞哞n Ducks quack kwk.鴨子嘎嘎嘎n Cats mew. 小貓喵喵叫n Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱n Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩n Pigs grunt. 小豬呼嚕嚕n Mice squeak skwik. 老鼠吱吱叫n Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. English and Chinese cows sound the same, but not in Eng

10、lish and Chinese! The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign語(yǔ)言符號(hào)and its meaning, however, is also conventional符合習(xí)俗的. 2) Productivity / Creativity -Peculiar to是特有的human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.Language is resourceful資源豐富的because

11、of its duality二元性and its recursiveness rik:sivnis遞歸性. We can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly立即地understood by people who have never come across講得清楚明白that usage before.The recursive nature遞歸性of language provides a potential to creat

12、e an infinite number of sentences. For instance: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who . This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt麥芽that lay in the house that Jack built. 3) Duality (double articulation) Lower level-s

13、ounds (meaningless)Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning)二層性是指擁有兩層結(jié)構(gòu)這種特性，上層結(jié)構(gòu)的單位由底層結(jié)構(gòu)的元素構(gòu)成，每層都有自身的組合規(guī)則。（Lyons, 1981) . b-o-o-k (meaningless segments: lower level, secondary) Book (meaningful unit: higher level, primary) Questions:Can you think of some other systems with the property of duali

14、ty Why is this property generally assumed as central to language Does animal language have this property Hierarchy等級(jí)制度of language:The secondary level sounds(meaningless) syllables The primary level morphemes(meaningful) wordsphrasessentences ( etc.)4) Displacement-Language can be used to refer to th

15、ings, which are not present (in time and space): real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away遙遠(yuǎn)的places. . A gibbon長(zhǎng)臂猿never utters發(fā)出 a call about something he ate last year.Animal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control” （直接刺激控制）. For instance, a warning

16、 cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus刺激 in the world or any internal state. 5) Cultural transmission-Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instin

17、ct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.The story of a wolf child狼孩, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. 1.2.3

18、 Functions of language:P10-121) referential ,refren()l (to convey message and information) (所指功能，即傳達(dá)信息）2) poeticpetk (to indulge in language for its own sake)（詩(shī)學(xué)功能，即享受語(yǔ)言自身的樂趣）3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions)（情感功能，即表達(dá)態(tài)度，感覺和情感）4) conativekuntiv (to persuade and influence others

19、 through commands and requests)（意動(dòng)功能，即通過(guò)指令和懇求說(shuō)服和影響他人）5) phaticftk (to establish communion with others) （寒暄功能，即與他人建立交際）6) metalingual,metliwl (to clear up intentions and meanings). （元語(yǔ)言功能，弄清意圖、詞語(yǔ)和意義） 注：1）emotive (expressive) function: releases feelings. Swear words罵人話, obscenities猥褻, exclamation驚嘆詞,

20、involuntary verbal言語(yǔ)的 reactions.2) phatic function: Good morning. How are youHalliday哈利迪Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions元功能思想 of language.For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves . Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant敬上) indica

21、te the various grades of interpersonal relations. What is Linguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)P1The scientific study of human languageAims of linguistic theory:What is knowledge of language (Competence)How is knowledge of language acquired (Acquisition)How is knowledge of language put to use (Performance/language process

22、ing性能/語(yǔ)言處理)1.1.2 Main branches of linguisticsP2-3n Phonetics發(fā)音/語(yǔ)音學(xué)n Phonology音系/音韻學(xué)n Morphology形態(tài)學(xué) Syntax句法n Semantics語(yǔ)義學(xué)n Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)The scope of linguistics1.1.3 Important distinctions in linguisticsP3-6 n Descriptive vs. prescriptive n Synchronic vs. diachronicn Speech vs. writing n Langue & pa

23、rolen Competence and performance1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive Dont say X. People dont say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in在于prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Descritptive: the linguists tries

24、to discover and record the rules to which the members of a large community actually conform遵照and does not seek to impose upon them other rules or norms of correctness. Prescriptive： the grammarians文法家 tries to lay down制定rules for the correct use of language and set the disputes over就進(jìn)行辯論usage once a

25、nd for all徹底地. ( right / wrong) Humorous grammar rules：Never end a sentence with a preposition.And dont start a sentence with a conjunction. It is wrong to ever split分離an infinitive不定式.No sentence fragments.2）Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not

26、necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. Synchronic study共時(shí)性研究- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study歷時(shí)性研究- description o

27、f a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) 3） Speech vs. writingSpeech - primary medium of languageWriting - later developed4）Langue語(yǔ)言 vs. parole言語(yǔ) (F. de Saussure)Langue - the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole -

28、 the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.5) Competence and performance (Chomsky)Competence - the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance - the actual realization of this k

29、nowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsTraditional grammar - prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics - des

30、criptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework Exercises for Chapter 11. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar for it is mostly _.A. prescriptive B. descriptive C. subjective D. Latin-based2. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _.A. abnormal B. somet

31、hing to be feared D. unnatural3. Of the “words” listed below, _is not an English word. A. spin B. lkbi C.strikt D. desk4. The study of language development at some point in time is generally termed as _ linguistics.A. comparative比較的 B. applied C. synchronic D. diachronic5. Which of the following wor

32、ds is entirely arbitraryA. bang B. photoC. typewriterD. rumble6. Modern linguistics give priority to speech because _.A. speech sounds are derived from writing systems.B. The spoken form is more basic than the written form.C. Writing precedes speech in English language.D. All the languages today hav

33、e both spoken and written forms.7. Which of the following statements is not the concern of sociolinguistsA. The language a person uses reveals his social background.B. There exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion.C. How does the human mind work when t

34、hey use language.D. To investigate the social aspects of language.8. Language is _ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. systematic B. culturally transmitted C. intuitive憑直覺獲知的 D. productive9. _ studies the internal structure of words and the ru

35、les that govern their formation.A. Phonology B. Semantics C. Syntax D. Morphology10. The study of language as a whole is often called _ linguistics.A. generalB. appliedB. generativeD. particular11. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of t

36、he _ nature of language.A. productive B. dual C. arbitrary D. displacing12. Which of the following is not a major branch of linguisticsA. phonetics B. phonologyC. speech D. syntax13. The application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching is _.A. computational linguistics B. anthr

37、opological linguisticsC. mathematical linguistics D. applied linguistics14. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _.A. primaryB. correct C. secondaryD. stable15. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior t

38、o writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above16. A historical study of language is a _ study of language.A. synchronic B. diachronic C. prescr

39、iptive D. comparative17. Saussure took a (n)_ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a _ point of view.A. sociological,psychological ,sociologicalC. applied, pragmatic D. semantic and linguistic18. According to F. de Saussure, _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all

40、the members of a speech community.A. parole B. performanceC. langue D. Language19. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _ , rather than by instinct.A. learning B. teaching C. books D. both A and BChapter 2- Phonetics發(fā)音/語(yǔ)音學(xué)Objectives (教學(xué)目的):To draw y

41、our attention to the areas of the phonetic study.To assist you to know more about the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)國(guó)際音標(biāo).To help familiarize you with the factors involved in describing English consonants and vowels. The phonic medium of language P141. What is the difference between “the phoni

42、c medium of language” and “the speech sounds”The phonic medium of language refers to the limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication. 語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介The speech sounds refer to the individual sounds within the range of the phonic medium of language.The phonic medium of language Family

43、The speech sounds Family members2. Why is speech considered more basic than writing Statistically, speech exists in every language while no written form exists in two thirds of the 5000 languages in the world.Historically, speech came into being much earlier than writing.Functionally, writing is inv

44、ented to record speech.Individually, speech is acquired before writing. Phonetics P151. What is phoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics)Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, that is, all the sounds that occ

45、ur in the worlds languages. 2. Discuss the relationship between articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics in terms of the process of human linguistic communication.2.2.2 Organs of speech P15-171. What organs are involved in producing language2. How are speech sounds produced

46、Human vocal tract 聲道is just like a (extremely flexible) m musical instrument! The human vocal tract can be rapidly reshaped in many different ways to take on different resonating 產(chǎn)生共鳴的properties. The effect of this is to create the variety of different sounds in human speech. 3. The diagram of speec

47、h organs:1) Lips 2) Teeth3) Teeth ridge (alveolar) 齒齦4) Hard palate硬腭5)Soft palate (velum) 軟腭6) Uvulaju:vjul小舌7)Tip of tongue舌尖8)Blade of tongue舌面1. 9 Glottal.)Back of tongue舌背10)Vocal cords聲帶11)Pharyngeal cavity咽喉12)Nasal cavity 鼻腔2.2.3 Orthographic representation正視表示法of speech soundsbroad and narr

48、ow transcriptions寬式和嚴(yán)式轉(zhuǎn)寫P17-181. What are main principles of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound. The same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.2. What is the difference between narrow transcriptio

49、n (嚴(yán)式轉(zhuǎn)寫) and broad transcription (寬式轉(zhuǎn)寫) 1) Broad transcription is regarded as phonemic transcription（音位轉(zhuǎn)寫）. It is widely used in textbooks and dictionaries. Examples: /stop/ /top/ /plein/2)Narrow transcription is regarded as phonetic transcription（語(yǔ)音轉(zhuǎn)寫）. It is used to distinguish small difference in

50、 speech production. Examples: pat vs. spat for pot vs. spot Narrow transcription = broad transcription + diacritics,dakrtk變音符號(hào)Broad transcriptionNarrow transcriptionlips/lps/lpsslip/slp/slppills/plz/pzspill/spl/sp1) Broad transcription - used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without d

51、iacritics，. clear l , pit 2) Narrow transcription - used by phonetician語(yǔ)言學(xué)者 for careful study, with diacritics，. dark l , aspirated p 2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds P18-22 English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels Consonants 2. What is the differ

52、ence between a consonant and a vowel3、Classification of consonants P19-20- English consonants may be classified according to three dimensions三維:1）The manner of articulation 2）The place of articulation3）Voicing1）The manner of articulation發(fā)音方法：stops/plosives 塞音 fricatives 擦音affricates 塞擦音 liquids 流音na

53、sals 鼻音 glides/semivowels 滑音 2）The place of articulation發(fā)音部位：bilabial雙唇音的 labiodental唇齒音的dental齒音的 alveolar齒齦音的palatal硬腭音的 velar軟顎音的glottal喉音的 2. Labiodental or interdental4. Alveolar 5. Palatoalveolar 7. Velar 4. The description of English consonants:1、 What are the 5 major factors involved in desc

54、ribing vowels1) The position of the tongue in the mouth 2) The openness of the mouth.3) The shape of the lips.4) The length of the vowel5) The tongue movementExamples: ei a diphthong 雙元音i: close front long/tense unrounded vowel (a monophthong單元音)2、Classification of vowels P20-22- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:1） Monophthongs or pure/single vowels2） Diphthongs or gliding vowels Front Vowels, central vowels and back vowels：According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguish