胡壯麟語言學Chapter-5

1、Chapter 5 Meaning （Continued） Highlights nSense relations nSemantic analysis nSentential relations Review nAre there words that have sense only? Review nThe Naming Theory n symbol referent n (word) (thing) Review n concept n word thing Review nA common noun may be used in n its referential meaning n

2、e.g. my car nits conceptual meaning ne.g. I need a car nDeterminers (the, my, this ,these, his, etc) signal a referential meaning nDeterminers (a, an, some, all, any, no) signal a conceptual meaning. Review nA proper noun only uses its referential meaning. ne.g. Byron is a great poet. nUnless it is

3、used figuratively: nHe is another Byron. Grammatical words (function words) are used only in their conceptual meanings. e.g. but, if, the, etc. Review Classification of meaning (Functional Approach)Classification of meaning (Functional Approach) conceptual meaning associative meaning connotative mea

4、ning dog-loyalty social meaningdad-father affective meaningslender-skinny reflected meaning intercourse- communication collocative meaning charge-accuse thematic meaning Major lexical sense relations nSynonymy 同義關系同義關系 nSynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are c

5、lose in meaning are called synonyms. nnative words and borrowed words (esp. Latin) nbuy-purchase, brotherly-fraternal, world-universe nAccording to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups: Synonyms n1)Dialectal synonyms synonyms used in different regional dialects. nBr

6、itish English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. nBritish people live in flats and take the underground or tube to work and go upstairs by lift while Americans live in apartments and take the subway to work and go up by elevator. Synonyms n2) Styli

7、stic synonyms synonyms differing in style. nWords having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style. old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent start, begin, commence kid, child, offs

8、pring Synonyms n3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning nThere are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about. ncommendatory/derogatory ncollaborator accomplice nIm thr

9、ifty. You are economical. And he is stingy. Synonyms n4)Collocational synonyms synonyms differing in their collocation. nSome synonyms differ in their collocation, i.e., in the words they go together with. This is a matter of usage. naccuseof chargewith rebukefor Synonyms n5)Semantically different s

10、ynonyms synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. namaze-astound escape-flee Antonymy nThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning, words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. nGradable antonyms 分級反義詞 nSome antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms betwee

11、n the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree. ngood- bad, long-short, big-small , hot-cold nlonger, bigger, etc (comparative degree) nvery bad, very cold (modifier) nNote:一對反義詞中，通常是那個表示較高程度的單詞用作覆蓋整個 量級的術語。覆蓋性詞語叫做無標記的“(unmarked)，即一般的； 被覆蓋的詞語叫做有標記的“(marked)，即特殊的。 Antonymy nComplementary an

12、tonyms 互補反義詞 nA pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. nalive-dead, male-female, present-absent, innocent- guilty, odd-even, pass-fail（a test), hit-miss（a target), boy-girl ndeader *, very alive* nH

13、e is more dead than alive. nJohn is more mad than stupid . Antonymy nRelational opposites 關系反義詞 nPairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. nbuy-sell, lend-borrow, give-receive, parent- child, husband-wife, host-guest , tie-untie

14、, pack-unpack, nfold-unfold, wrap-unwrap nOxymoron (矛盾修飾法) nbitter-sweet memories, cruel kindness, a wise fool nopen secret, victorious defeat nParting is such a sweet sorrow. (Shakespeare) EX. nWhich of the following pairs would be described as the “unmarked” member? n big/small expensive/inexpensi

15、ve fast/slow n few/ many happy/unhappy long/short nold/young possible/impossible strong/weak nthick/thin EX. nWhich of these pairs of words are examples of converse antonymy? n above/below asleep/awake brother/sister buy/sell n doctor/patient dry/wet enter/exit follow/precede n husband/wife true/fal

16、se Hyponymy nHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general and more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms

17、to each other. nflower nrose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning glory （牽?；ǎ?nanimal ndog, cat, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear Hyponymy nInclusiveness nA is included in / a kind of B. nCf.: chair and furniture, rose and flower nSuperordinate/hypernym: the more general term nHyponym: the more sp

18、ecific term nCo-hyponyms: members of the same class Hyponymy nSometimes a superordinate may be missing. color terms: red, green, yellow, blue, white beard, moustache, whiskers Hyponyms may also be missing. uncle (superordinate): 伯伯、叔叔、舅舅、姑父、姨 夫 rice (superordinate): 稻、谷、米、飯 Homonymy nHomonymy refers

19、 to the phenomenon that word having different meaning have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. nWhen two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. nWhen two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. nWhen two words are identical i

20、n both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. Homonymy nrain/ reign; night/ knight; piece/ peace nbow v./ bow n.; tear v./ tear n.; lead v./ lead n. nfast adj./ fast v.; scale n./ scale v. Ex. Name the sense relationship in each pair. n1. furniture/table n2. vacant/occupied n3. offspring/ch

21、ild n4. heir/air n5. amaze/astound n6. meat/beef n7. father/dad n8. married/single n9. move/run EX. nWhat is the basic sense relation between each pair of the words listed here? n(a) damp/moist (b) deep/shallow (c) furniture/table n(d) married/single (e) move/run Summary nSynonyms, hyponyms, antonym

22、s may be used as a cohesive device in speaking and writing. nWhen early human beings began farming, it was a nrevolutionary change in human life . It was thousands o f years later that people developed writing system. In less than fifty years, people have developed computers that can do most of the

23、things humans can do Will we use them to improve the quality of life for all humanity? nYou will need to take some tools with you. You can get a hammer, a saw and a screwdriver from most big department stores. Lexical meaning and sentential meaning (from the perspective of logic) nComponential analy

24、sis a way to analyze lexical meaning n語義成分分析法 一種詞義分析法 nBefore modern linguistics, the meaning of a word was assumed to be unanalysable. Now, semanticists believe that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate w

25、hether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. Componential analysis nman nwoman nboy ngirl nman nboy nwoman ngirl +MALE -MALE/ MALE, MALE +ADULT -ADULT/ ADULT ADULT semantic components/ semantic

26、features Componential analysis （結構式） nman +MALE, +ADULT, +HUMAN nwoman -MALE, +ADULT, +HUMAN nboy +MALE, -ADULT, +HUMAN ngirl -MALE, +ADULT, +HUMAN Componential analysis （矩形圖） Componential analysis n Nouns: n father = PARENT (x, y) U=unmarried) nFor all x , if x is a bachelor, then necessarily follo

27、ws x is unmarried. nEverybody has a father. n y x F (x, y) (F=father of ) nFor all y there is one x such that x is father of y. Propositional logic (命題邏輯) Truth value: Not 否定式 Propositional logic (命題邏輯) Truth value: And P: He is clever. q: He is diligent. 合取式 Propositional logic (命題邏輯) Truth value:

28、Or : P: He studies English. q: He studies French. 析取式 Propositional logic (命題邏輯) Truth value: Ifthen 蘊含 式 有前件，必有后件 無前件，可以有后件， 也可沒有后件 Propositional logic (命題邏輯) Truth value: Equals to 等價式 簡單命題同為真 或同為假，復合命題 皆為真 Propositional logic (命題邏輯) n He has been to Spain. （p） nsufficient condition: n（充分條件） He ha

29、s been to Europe (q) n He knows 26 English letters. (p) nnecessary condition n（必要條件） He speaks English. (q) 邏輯聯(lián)結詞和自然語言中對應詞的區(qū)別 n否定式： Not nJohn is alive. nJohn is not alive. nJohn isnt old. nJohn is old. 邏輯聯(lián)結詞和自然語言中對應詞的區(qū)別 合取式 And John is bright and diligent。 John is diligent and bright. John arrived l

30、ate and missed the train. John missed the train and arrived late. 邏輯聯(lián)結詞和自然語言中對應詞的區(qū)別 n 蘊含式Ifthen nHe is an Englishman. nHe speaks English. nSnow is white. nGrass is green. nSnow is black. nGrass is green. If he is an Englishman, he speaks English. If snow is white, grass is green. If snow is black, g

31、rass is green. Limitations of propositional logic n命題邏輯涉及命題之間的語義關系，它把簡單命題當 做一個不可分析的整體對待（不能對簡單命題進行分 析）。因此它無法分析 syllogism (三段論、演繹推理) 之類的有效推理。 All men are rational. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is rational. 謂詞邏輯(predicate logic) nSocrates is a man. n主目（argument） predicate (謂詞) n M（s） (邏輯式) =1

32、 nM（c） (邏輯式) =0 nJohn runs. R (j) 謂詞邏輯(predicate logic) nJohn loves Mary L (j,m) n主目 謂詞 主目 （love 帶2個主目，成為二元謂詞 two-place predicate） John gave Mary a book. G（j, m, b） n主目 謂詞 主目 主目 (give 是三元謂詞，three-place predicate) 謂詞邏輯(predicate logic) nSo, nOne-place predicate: run nTwo-place predicate: love nThree-place predicate: give 謂詞邏輯(predicate logic) n上面的命題里主目(argument )都是指特定實體，是個 體常項。 n如果引入個體變項 (variables) x, y, z 和 n全稱量詞（universal quantifier） (=all) n存在量詞（existential quantifier） (=some) n那么，就可以表達更多較為復雜句子