《語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論》期末復(fù)習(xí)及練習(xí)

1、語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論復(fù)習(xí)及各章節(jié)練習(xí)chapter onei. design features of language: productivity, duality, arbitrariness, and displacementii. origin of language: the mysterious origin of the language or holy origin bow-wow 自然模聲說 yo-he-ho 勞動(dòng)號(hào)子說 evolution 進(jìn)化說 conventionalism 約定俗成說 innatism 先天論 after-birth acquisition后天習(xí)得說 gestur

2、es 手勢(shì)說 embodiment 體驗(yàn)說 (reality - cognition - language)iii. functions of language:informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual functioniv. linguistics and its branches 1. six periods of linguistics philo

3、logy 傳統(tǒng)語文學(xué)時(shí)期 (19世紀(jì)前) historical & comparative linguistics歷史比較語言學(xué)時(shí)期 (19世紀(jì)) structural linguistics結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)時(shí)期 (20世紀(jì)初) functional linguistics系統(tǒng)功能主義語言學(xué)時(shí)期 (20世紀(jì)中) transferred generative linguistics轉(zhuǎn)換生成語言學(xué)時(shí)期 (20世紀(jì)中) cognitive linguistics認(rèn)知語言學(xué)時(shí)期 (20世紀(jì)80年代)2. internal branches: inrea-disciplinary divisions (內(nèi)

4、部分支)1）phonetics （語音學(xué)）studies how speech sounds are pronounced, transmitted and perceived.2）phonology（音系學(xué)） is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. （研究語音和音節(jié)的結(jié)構(gòu)、分布和序列）3）morphology（形態(tài)學(xué)）is concerned with the internal orga

5、nization of words. it studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.4）syntax(句法學(xué)) is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of interrelationships between elements in sentence structures

6、.5）semantics（語義學(xué)）is the study of how meaning is encoded in a language, or it is the study of meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.6）pragmatics（語用學(xué)）is the study of meaning in context or in use. 3. external branches: inter-disciplinary divisions （外部分支：跨學(xué)科分支，即宏觀語言學(xué)分支）1）psychol

7、inguistics is the study of the interrelation of language and mind.2）sociolinguistics studies the characteristics of languages varieties, language functions and speakers as the three interact and change within a speech community.3）anthropological linguistics studies the emergence of language and the

8、divergence of language over thousands of years.4）computational linguistics studies the use of computers to process or produce human language.chapter two phonetics1. sub-branches of phoneticsarticulatory phonetics : the production of speech soundsacoustic phonetics: the physical properties of speech

9、soundsauditory phonetics or perceptual phonetics : the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds2. groups of speech soundsconsonants and vowels3. ways to describe consonants1) position of articulation2) manner of articulation3) voiced or voiceless4. ways to describe vowels1) the height of tongue raising

10、 (high, mid, low);2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short);4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)chapter three phonologyi. phonemes and allophones1. phoneme: a distinctive, abstract sound with a

11、 distinctive feature (具有區(qū)別意義的最小語音單位)2. allophones: the variants of a phoneme (音位變體)3. contrastive distribution (對(duì)立分布)：the typical to be found in minimal pairs (最小對(duì)比對(duì))。 a minimal pair refers to two words which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in

12、 meaning, for example, bear and pear.4. complementary distribution（互補(bǔ)分布）:allophones are not found in the same position5. free variation (自由變體)： if segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.ii. supraseg

13、mental features (超音段特征)the principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone and intonation.chapter four morphologyi. morpheme1. morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language (最小的有意義的語言單位)2. free morphemes (自由語素) and bound morphemes (黏著語素)1) free morphemes: morphemes constituting wor

14、ds by themselves are called free morphemes. they are roots of words.2) bound morphemes : morphemes always attached to free morphemes to form new words are called bound morphemes. they are affixes of words, which can be further divided into inflectional affixes (屈折詞綴)and derivational affixes（派生詞綴）.3)

15、 inflectional morphemes in modern english indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.4) derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.ii. word formation 1. derivation（派生法） 2. compounding(復(fù)合法) 3. lexic

16、al change proper (特有的詞匯變化) invention or coinage blending abbreviation acronym back-formation borrowingiii. semantic change broadening (詞義擴(kuò)大) narrowing (詞義縮小) metathesis （ meaning shift (詞義轉(zhuǎn)移)chapter five syntaxi. traditional grammar（傳統(tǒng)語法）1. in traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence

17、 of words which are classified into parts of speech.2. sentences are analysed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, predicates and predicator.3. nouns: number, case, gender, countability4. verbs: tense, aspect, voice5. agreement in number, person and gender ii. structural gr

18、ammar（結(jié)構(gòu)主義語法）1. it was founded by saussure, who distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue(語言) and parole（言語）.2. structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate traditional grammar. it deals with the inter-relationships of d

19、ifferent grammatical units. in the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.3. key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic (associative )relations (橫組合關(guān)系和縱聚合關(guān)系/聯(lián)想關(guān)系), structure and system (結(jié)構(gòu)與系統(tǒng))，immediate constituents analy

20、sis(直接成分分析法)，endocentric and exocentric constructions (向心結(jié)構(gòu)與離心結(jié)構(gòu)) iii. transformational-generative (tg) grammar (轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法)1. it was founded by noam chomsky, who believes that language is somewhat innate - the innateness hypothesis (天賦假說) and that children are born with a language acquisition device(語言

21、習(xí)得機(jī)制)，which consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker (假設(shè)標(biāo)記)，linguistic universal (語言普遍現(xiàn)象) and an evaluation procedure (評(píng)估程序)。2. chomsky distinguishes a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situation as competence (語言能力) and pe

22、rformance(語言運(yùn)用). tg grammar takes the ideal speakers linguistic competence as the object of study.3. tg grammar has experienced five stages of development: the classical theory, the standard theory, the extended standard theory, the revised extended standard theory and the minimalist program.iv. sys

23、tematic-functional grammar(系統(tǒng)功能語法) 1. it was founded by m. a. k. halliday and takes actual uses of language as the object of study. 2. the grammar has two components: systematic grammar and functional grammar. 3. key concepts: theme and rheme (主位和述位)，communicative dynamism(交際動(dòng)力)，the three meta-funct

24、ions of language - ideational function(概念功能)，interpersonal function (人際功能) and texual function (文本功能).summaryschoolsrepresentativestheories and concepts1 saussurelanguage is a system of signs.structural grammar2chomskytg grammarthe prague school/synchronic linguistic studylanguage is functional.func

25、tional sentence perspective(fsp)theme and rhemethe london schoolfirthhallidythe object of linguistics is language in actual use.systematic-functional grammaramerican structuralismboas and sapirbloomfieldsapir-whorf hypothesisbehaviorism in linguisticschapter six semanticsi. definition of meaningii.

26、g. leech and his 7 types of meaning: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning and thematic meaning.iii. the conceptual view （概念主義觀點(diǎn)）: semantic triangle(語義三角) by ogden & richards - symbol or form, referent, and thought or refer

27、ence.iv. contextualism (語境主義)：to base meaning on context; a representative of this approach was j. r. firth.v. behaviorism(行為主義): the meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer; a supporter of this approach was bloomfield,

28、 who was a principle representative of american structuralism.vi. key concepts1. lexical sense relations (詞匯含義關(guān)系)synonymy (同義關(guān)系)polysemy(一詞多義)homonymy(同音或同形異義關(guān)系)hyponymy(上下義關(guān)系)antonymy(反義關(guān)系) 2. sentential sense relations(語句含義關(guān)系) tautology (同義反復(fù)句) contradiction (自相矛盾句) inconsistency (矛盾關(guān)系) synonymous

29、ness (同義關(guān)系) entailment (衍推關(guān)系) presupposition (預(yù)設(shè)) semantically anomalousness (語義反常句)chapter seven pragmatics 語用學(xué)i. speech act theory (言語行為理論)1. the first major theory in the study of language in use;2. founded by john langshaw austin;3. the major idea is that things can be done with words;4. two typ

30、es of sentences：performative and constative (行事話語與敘事話語)5. theory of the illocutionary(行事行為理論)：locutionary act (言內(nèi)行為)，illocutionary act (言外行為)，perlocutionary act (言后行為)ii. conversational implicature (會(huì)話含義理論)1. proposed by herbert grice;2. the cooperative principles (合作原則)：quantity maxim (數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則)quality

31、 maxim (質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則)relation maxim (關(guān)系準(zhǔn)則)manner maxim (方式準(zhǔn)則)chapter 1 introductions to linguisticsichoose the best answer.1. language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human _.a. contact b. communication c. relation d. community2. which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?a. tree b.

32、typewriter c. crash d. bang3. the function of the sentence “water boils at 100 degrees centigrade.” is_. a. interrogative b. directive c. informative d. performative4. in chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（歲歲）平安”as a means of controlling

33、 the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. which functions does it perform?a. interpersonal b. emotive c. performative d. recreational5. which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of la

34、nguage, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? a. transferability b. duality c. displacement d. arbitrariness6. study the following dialogue. what function does it play according to the functions of language? a nice day, isnt it? right! i really enjoy the sunlight.a

35、. emotive b. phatic c. performative d. interpersonal7. _ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language usersknowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. a. performance b. competence c. langue d. parole8. when a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone th

36、at exists hear and now. it couldnt be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. this indicates the design feature of _. a. cultural transmission b. productivity c. displacement d. duality9. _ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language. a. psycholinguisticsb. anthropologi

37、cal linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. applied linguistics10._ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.a. linguistic theory b. practical linguisticsc. applied linguistics d. comparative linguisticsii.decide whether the following statements are true or false. 11.language

38、 is a means of verbal communication. therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12.language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. language is written because writing is the pri

39、mary medium for all languages.15. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. only human beings are able to communicate.17.f. de saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th

40、 century, was a french linguist.18. a study of the features of the english used in shakespeares time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19.speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20.all the languages in the world today have both spoken and written for

41、ms.iii.fill in the blanks. 21.language, broadly speaking, is a means of _ communication.22.in any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. this feature is usually termed _.23. language has many functions. we can

42、use language to talk about itself. this function is _.24. theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the _ theory.25.linguistics is the _ study of language.26.modern linguistics is _ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what langua

43、ge is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. one general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _ over writing.28. the description of a language as it changes through time is a _ study.29. saussure put forward two important concepts. _ refers to the abstract linguistic

44、 system shared by all members of a speech community.30. linguistic potential is similar to saussures langue and chomskys _.iv.explain the following terms, using examples. 31.design feature32. displacement33. competence34.synchronic linguisticsv.answer the following questions.35.why do people take du

45、ality as one of the important design features of human language? can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? 36. why is it difficult to define language? vi.analyze the following situation.37. how can a linguist make his analysis scientific? key:in the reference keys, i wo

46、nt give examples or further analysis. that seems too much work for me. therefore, this key is only for reference. in order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. so you should read the textbook carefully. i.15 baccc 610 bacacii.1115 fftff 1620 fffffiii.21. verbal 22. productivity /

47、 creativity23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceiv.31.design feature: it refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communicati

48、on.32.displacement: it means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33.competence: it is an essential part of performance. it is the speakers knowledge of his or her language; that is

49、, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. a transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34.synchronic linguistics: it refers to the st

50、udy of a language at a given point in time. the time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as latin. synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of

51、time.v.35. duality makes our language productive. a large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the english language. and out of the huge number of words, there can be

52、astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.if language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which wil

53、l be highly limited. it cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36.it is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not total

54、ly free from limitations.vi.37.it should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis collect data check against the observable facts come to a conclusion.chapter 2 speech soundsi. choose the best answer. 1.pitch variation is known as _ when its patterns are imposed on sentences. a. intonationb. tonec. pronunciationd. voice2. conventionally a _ is put in slashes (/ /). a. allophone b. phone c