英文論文基本結(jié)構(gòu)

1、 英文論文難，不是難在寫作素材上，而是難在不熟悉專業(yè)的詞匯，中國(guó)的留學(xué)生大多本身 的英語(yǔ)根底不好，很多都是應(yīng)付各種考試而準(zhǔn)備的詞匯， 和英語(yǔ)母語(yǔ)的外國(guó)學(xué)生相比， 中國(guó)學(xué)生 寫作能力那么欠缺不少。還有一點(diǎn)，用英語(yǔ)寫論文難， 是因?yàn)椴惶私鈱W(xué)術(shù)英語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)。 本文 主要在于討論學(xué)術(shù)論文寫作的方法， 包括學(xué)術(shù)論文寫作中常用的句型結(jié)構(gòu)， 對(duì)于很多初次寫作的 新手來(lái)說(shuō)應(yīng)該有所幫助， 大家可以模仿和學(xué)習(xí)， 以便自己的英文論文化難為易。 下面我們來(lái)看看 英文論文的寫作技巧有哪些？ 一般來(lái)說(shuō)，一篇完整標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的學(xué)術(shù)論文由以下各局部構(gòu)成： Title標(biāo)題 Abstract摘要 Keywords關(guān)鍵詞 Table

2、of contents 目錄Nomenclature 術(shù)語(yǔ)表 Introduction 弓I言 Method方法 Results結(jié)果 Discussion討論 Conclusion結(jié)論 Acknowledgement 致謝 Reference參考文獻(xiàn) Appendix附錄 其中 Title , Abstract , Introduction , Method , Result , Discussion , Conclusion , Reference 等八項(xiàng)內(nèi)容是必不可少的 其他內(nèi)容根據(jù)具體需要而定 。在這八項(xiàng)內(nèi)容中，讀者最多的是 Title , Abstract和Introduction局部

3、，讀者會(huì)根據(jù)這些內(nèi)容來(lái)決定是否閱讀全文。也就是說(shuō)，一篇研究 論文贏得讀者的多少，在很大程度上取決于 Title , Abstract和Introduction 寫得好壞。因此這 三項(xiàng)內(nèi)容將各分章詳細(xì)加以講述。 學(xué)術(shù)論文的正文一般包括 Method , Result , Discussion三個(gè)局部。這三局部主要描述研究 課題的具體內(nèi)容、方法，研究過(guò)程中所使用的設(shè)備、儀器、條件，并如實(shí)公布有關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)和研究結(jié) 果等。Conclusion是對(duì)全文內(nèi)容或有關(guān)研究課題進(jìn)行的總體性討論。它具有嚴(yán)密的科學(xué)性和客 觀性，反映一個(gè)研究課題的價(jià)值，同時(shí)提出以后的研究方向。 標(biāo)題的寫法 論文標(biāo)題是全文內(nèi)容的縮影。讀者

4、通過(guò)標(biāo)題便能夠預(yù)測(cè)論文的主要內(nèi)容和作者的意圖，從 而決定是否閱讀全文。因此，為了使文章贏得有關(guān)領(lǐng)域里眾多的讀者， 論文的標(biāo)題必須用最精煉 的語(yǔ)言恰如其分地表達(dá)全文的主題和核心。本章主要探討英語(yǔ)學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)及寫法。 6.1標(biāo)題的長(zhǎng)度 標(biāo)題單詞總數(shù)名詞數(shù)介詞數(shù)形容詞等 1) Fire Resistant Steels for Construction: Design, Properties and Microchemistry 9 6 1 2 2) Damping Capacity of Shape Memory Alloy 6 5 1 0 3) Microelectronic Asse

5、mbly and Packaging Technology: Barriers and Needs 8 5 0 3 14) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell: A Survey 6 4 0 2 5) Progress on Fuel Cell and Its Materials 7 4 1 2 6) Computer Simulation and Experimental Study on Cold Shut During Mold Filling 11 5 2 4 英語(yǔ)科技論文中，標(biāo)題不宜過(guò)長(zhǎng)，大多為 8 12個(gè)單詞左右。 英文論文引言的寫作技巧 學(xué)術(shù)論文中的引言(Introduc

6、tion)是對(duì)全文內(nèi)容和結(jié)構(gòu)的總體勾畫。引言盡管不像摘要那樣 有一定的篇幅限制和相對(duì)固定的格式， 但在內(nèi)容和結(jié)構(gòu)模式上也有需要遵循的規(guī)律。 本章首先介 紹這些規(guī)律，然后探討需要掌握的語(yǔ)言技巧。 8.1引言的內(nèi)容與結(jié)構(gòu)布局 引言的主要任務(wù)是向讀者勾勒出全文的根本內(nèi)容和輪廓。它可以包括以下五項(xiàng)內(nèi)容中的全 部或其中幾項(xiàng)： 介紹某研究領(lǐng)域的背景、意義、開(kāi)展?fàn)顩r、目前的水平等 ； 對(duì)相關(guān)領(lǐng)域的文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行回憶和綜述，包括前人的研究成果，已經(jīng)解決的問(wèn)題，并適當(dāng)加以 評(píng)價(jià)或比擬； 指出前人尚未解決的問(wèn)題，留下的技術(shù)空白，也可以提出新問(wèn)題、解決這些新問(wèn)題的新方 法、新思路，從而引出自己研究課題的動(dòng)機(jī)與意義； 說(shuō)明

7、自己研究課題的目的； 概括論文的主要內(nèi)容，或勾勒其大體輪廓。 如何合理安排以上這些內(nèi)容，將它們有條有理地給讀者描繪清楚，并非容易之事。經(jīng)驗(yàn)告 訴我們，引言其實(shí)是全文最難寫的一局部。這是因?yàn)樽髡邔?duì)有關(guān)學(xué)科領(lǐng)域的熟悉程度， 作者的知 識(shí)是淵博、還是貧乏，研究的意義何在、價(jià)值如何等問(wèn)題，都在引言的字里行間得以充分表達(dá)。 我們可以將引言的內(nèi)容分為三到四個(gè)層次來(lái)安排 (如圖8.1所示)。第一層由研究背景、意義、 開(kāi)展?fàn)顩r等內(nèi)容組成， 其中還包括某一研究領(lǐng)域的文獻(xiàn)綜述； 第二層提出目前尚未解決的問(wèn)題或 急需解決的問(wèn)題， 從而引出自己的研究動(dòng)機(jī)與意義； 第三層說(shuō)明自己研究的具體目的與內(nèi)容； 最 后是引言的結(jié)

8、尾，可以介紹一下論文的組成局部。 第一層： 1) Introducing the general research area including its background, importance, and present level of development . 2) Reviewing previous research in this area. 第二層： Indicating the problem that has not been solved by previous research, raising a relevant question 第三層： Specifying

9、the purpose of your research . 第四層： 1) Announcing your major findings . 2) Outlining the contents of your paper . 圖8.1引言的結(jié)構(gòu)布局之一 值得注意的是，引言中各個(gè)層次所占的篇幅可以有很大差異。這一點(diǎn)與摘要大不一樣，摘 要中的目的、方法、結(jié)果、結(jié)論四項(xiàng)內(nèi)容各自所占的篇幅大體比例一樣 (見(jiàn)7.2節(jié))。而在引言中， 第一個(gè)層次往往占去大局部篇幅。 對(duì)研究背景和目前的研究狀況進(jìn)行較為詳細(xì)的介紹。 研究目的 可能會(huì)比擬簡(jiǎn)短。 引言與摘要還有一點(diǎn)不同的是，摘要中必須把主要研究結(jié)果列出，而在

10、引言中 (如果摘要與 正文一同登出)結(jié)果那么可以省略不寫，這是因?yàn)檎闹袑ｉT有一節(jié)寫結(jié)果 (results),不必在引言中 重復(fù)。 下面這段引言的例子摘自一篇關(guān)于混合電動(dòng)汽車的研究論文，大局部篇幅介紹研究背景。 sample 1 A Hybrid Internal Combustion Engine/Battery Electric Passenger Car for Petroleum Displacement I. Forster and J. R. Bumby INTRODUCTION 1 The finite nature of the worlds oil resources and

11、 the general concern about automobile emissions have prompted the adoption of energy conservation policies and emphasized the need to transfer energy demand from oil to other sources of energy, such as natural gas, coal and nuclear. 2 A transfer of energy from oil to electricity can be achieved to a

12、 limited extent in the road trans- port sector by the increased use of electric vehicle. However, such vehicles are limited in range due to the amount Of energy that can he realistically stored on-board the vehicle without affecting payload. As a consequence of this, electric vehicles must he used i

13、n situations where daily usage is well defined, for example, in urban delivery duty. Indeed, it has been in such vehicles as the urban milk delivery vehicles that electric traction drives have been traditionally applied with a great deal of success. Currently the demand is for urban electric vehicle

14、s to he developed with greater traffic compatibility in terms of speed and range. 分析：第一層第1 5段：介紹混合電動(dòng)汽車的研究背景、意義、目前的開(kāi)展水平，需要 解決的問(wèn)題等。第 1段：指出混合電動(dòng)汽車的研究背景。世界石油資源的有限性及人們對(duì)汽車 排放問(wèn)題的廣泛關(guān)注使得能源轉(zhuǎn)換問(wèn)題尤為重要。第 2段：使用電動(dòng)汽車能夠從某種程度上實(shí) 現(xiàn)能源轉(zhuǎn)換。但問(wèn)題是電動(dòng)汽車的續(xù)駛里程比內(nèi)燃機(jī)車短。 所以目前要解決的問(wèn)題是提高電動(dòng)汽 車的速度和續(xù)駛里程。 3 Although urban delivery vehicle app

15、lications will help to reduce the dependence of the road transport sector on petroleum-based fuels, the major part of this market requires vehicles that are not limited in range and have a performance compatible with internal combustion, i.e. engine vehicles. The use of advanced traction battery tec

16、hnology to overcome the range limitation of electric vehicles is one possible solution. However, this would still result in a vehicle limited in range and may in itself create additional problems. For example, due to the much greater on- board stored energy, the charging time required will be greate

17、r than at present. 4 The range limitations of the pure electric vehicle can be overcome by using a hybrid i.c. engine/electric drive which incorporates both an i.c. engine and an electric traction system. Al- though such a vehicle can be designed to meet a number of objectives, it has been argued th

18、at a vehicle which seeks to remove the range limitation of the electric vehicle while substituting a substantial amount of petroleum fuel by electrical energy is the vehicle most worth pursuing. With the emphasis of the vehicle design on the electric drive train, the intention may be to operate in a

19、n all-electric mode under urban conditions and to use the i.c. engine for long-distance motorway driving. The hybrid mode could then he used for extending urban range and/or improving vehicle accelerative performance on accelerator kick-down.5 The concept of a hybrid electric vehicle capable of subs

20、tituting petroleum fuel is not new, 第3段：市場(chǎng)要求電動(dòng)汽車的續(xù)駛里程及工作性能與內(nèi)燃機(jī)汽車媲美，但是，即使先進(jìn)電 池可以提高電動(dòng)汽車的續(xù)駛里程，但還會(huì)有一些問(wèn)題不能解決。第 4段：續(xù)駛里程可以通過(guò)使 用混合電動(dòng)汽車來(lái)提高。 混合電動(dòng)汽車上既裝有內(nèi)燃機(jī)， 又裝有電動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)， 在必要時(shí)使用其 中一種系統(tǒng)。第 5段：回憶并評(píng)述前人關(guān)于混合電動(dòng)汽車 Bosch and Volkswagen having built vehicles in the 1970s. More recently, the advent of the Electric and Hybri

21、d Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Programme in the United States of America initiated the design and construction of a Near Term Hybrid Vehicle (NTHV) with the principal aim of substituting petroleum fuel by wall plug electricity. 6 As part of the NTHV programme, a large number of co

22、nceptual studies were conducted but on vehicles aimed at the American passenger car market. In this paper optimization studies were conducted, but now on a vehicle suitable for the European medium-sized passenger car market. Such optimization studies are important as, with two sources of traction po

23、wer available, the way in which they are controlled, and their relative sizing, is fundamental to the way the vehicle performs.7 Before examining in detail the optimum control strategy for the drive train, Section 2 defines the hybrid arrangement under study. A description of the optimization proces

24、s using an appro 摘要的寫作技巧 英文摘要(Abstract)的寫作應(yīng)用很廣。不僅參加國(guó)際學(xué)術(shù)會(huì)議、向國(guó)際學(xué)術(shù)刊物投稿要寫摘 要，國(guó)內(nèi)級(jí)別較高的學(xué)術(shù)期刊也要求附上英文摘要。 學(xué)位論文更是如此。論文摘要是全文的精華， 是對(duì)一項(xiàng)科學(xué)研究工作的總結(jié)， 對(duì)研究目的、方法和研究結(jié)果的概括。本章主要介紹摘要的組成 局部、寫作方法、各局部的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)以及典型句型。 1. 摘要的種類與特點(diǎn) 摘要主要有以下四種。 第一種是隨同論文一起在學(xué)術(shù)刊物上發(fā)表的摘要。這種摘要置于主體局部之前，目的是讓 讀者首先了解一下論文的內(nèi)容， 以便決定是否閱讀全文。一般來(lái)說(shuō)，這種摘要在全文完成之后寫。 字?jǐn)?shù)限制在100

25、 150字之間。內(nèi)容包括研究目的、研究方法、研究結(jié)果和主要結(jié)論。 第二種是學(xué)術(shù)會(huì)議論文摘要。會(huì)議論文摘要往往在會(huì)議召開(kāi)之前幾個(gè)月撰寫，目的是交給 會(huì)議論文評(píng)審委員會(huì)評(píng)閱， 從而決定是否能夠錄用。 所以，比第一種略為詳細(xì)， 長(zhǎng)度在200 300 字之間。會(huì)議論文摘要的開(kāi)頭有必要簡(jiǎn)單介紹一下研究課題的意義、目的、宗旨等。 如果在寫摘 要時(shí)，研究工作尚未完成，全部研究結(jié)果還未得到，那么，應(yīng)在方法、目的、宗旨、假設(shè)等方面 多花筆墨。 第三種為學(xué)位論文摘要。學(xué)士、碩士和博士論文摘要一般都要求用中、英文兩種語(yǔ)言寫。 學(xué)位論文摘要一般在 400字左右，根據(jù)需要可以分為幾個(gè)段落。 內(nèi)容一般包括研究背景、意義、

26、 主旨和目的；根本理論依據(jù)，根本假設(shè)；研究方法；研究結(jié)果；主要?jiǎng)?chuàng)新點(diǎn)；簡(jiǎn)短討論。不同級(jí) 別的學(xué)位論文摘要，要突出不同程度的創(chuàng)新之處，指出有何新的觀點(diǎn)、見(jiàn)解或解決問(wèn)題的新方法。 第四種是脫離原文而獨(dú)立發(fā)表的摘要。這種摘要更應(yīng)該具有獨(dú)立性、自含性、完整性。讀 者無(wú)需閱讀全文，便可以了解全文的主要內(nèi)容。 以上四種摘要具有許多共性。無(wú)論哪種摘要，內(nèi)容一般都包括： (1) 目的(objectives , purposes):包括研究背景、范圍、內(nèi)容、要解決的問(wèn)題及解決這一問(wèn) 題的重要性和意義。 (2) 方法(methods and materials):包括材料、手段和過(guò)程。 (3) 結(jié)果與簡(jiǎn)短討論(r

27、esults and discussions):包括數(shù)據(jù)與分析。 (4) 結(jié)論(conclusions):主要結(jié)論，研究的價(jià)值和意義等。 無(wú)論哪種摘要，語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)和文體風(fēng)格也都相同。首先必須符合格式標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。第二，語(yǔ)言必須 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)通順，準(zhǔn)確得體，用詞要確切、恰如其分，而且要防止非通用的符號(hào)、縮略語(yǔ)、生偏詞。另 外，摘要的語(yǔ)氣要客觀，不要作出言過(guò)其實(shí)的結(jié)論。 下面從內(nèi)容、結(jié)構(gòu)布局和語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)三方面著手，討論摘要的寫作方法和技巧。 2. 摘要的內(nèi)容與結(jié)構(gòu) 一般來(lái)說(shuō)，摘要必須包括研究目的，研究方法，研究結(jié)果，主要結(jié)論等內(nèi)容。也就是說(shuō)， 摘要必須答復(fù)研究什么、怎么研究、得到了什么結(jié)果、結(jié)果說(shuō)明了什么等問(wèn)題。 2

28、.1學(xué)術(shù)期刊論文摘要 這種摘要隨同全文一起發(fā)表， 簡(jiǎn)短精煉是其主要特點(diǎn)。 只需簡(jiǎn)明扼要地將研究目的、 方法、 結(jié)果和結(jié)論分別用 1 2句話加以概括即可(如下圖)。至于研究背景或宗旨應(yīng)在論文的 Introduction局部較詳細(xì)介紹，不必在摘要里介紹。 Title Author(s), address Objectives,purpose,hypotheses . . Methods,materials,procedures . . . . Results,data,observations,discussion. . Conclusions . 期刊論文摘要結(jié)構(gòu)布局 例1 . DOES ALU

29、MINUM ENTER THE LIQUID OONTAINED IN POP CANS AND ALUMINUM COOKWARE? Daniel T. Moss Campbell, 353 North King St., Xenia OH 45385 Objective: 1This investigation was performed to see if the aluminum in pop cans 易拉 罐and aluminum cookware enters the liquid they contain. It was hypothesized that aluminum

30、does enter the liquids in aluminum cans and cookware. Methods and Materials: This experiment was performed by testing seven different types of carbonated beverages and water boiled in aluminum cookware for three hours. Every hour a sample was removed for testing. The cookware consisted of a new and

31、old aluminum pot. The colorimetric method was used to determine the concentration of aluminum. Results: The results showed that aluminum was present in carbonated beverages and in the water boiled in the cookware. Conclusions: It was concluded that aluminum existed in carbonated beverages and substa

32、nces cooked in aluminum cookware, and that the concentration of aluminum increased with time. 126 words本章選文中黑體局部為編者注。 分析: 本摘要共8句話，126個(gè)詞。第1句話指出了研究目的：裝在易拉罐或鋁制炊具中的液體 是否含有鋁。第 2句是假設(shè)，鋁可能真的會(huì)進(jìn)人裝在鋁制罐子或炊具中的液體之中。第 3 6句 是實(shí)驗(yàn)材料、時(shí)間與方法。第 7句是實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果。第 8句是結(jié)論：存放于鋁制容器或炊具中的液 體內(nèi)含有鋁，而且存放的時(shí)間越長(zhǎng)，鋁含量越高。 例1中的主要句型結(jié)構(gòu)如下： This invest

33、igation was performed to see 表示研究 目的 It was hypothesized that 表示假設(shè) This experiment was performed by testing 表示實(shí)驗(yàn)過(guò)程和方法 The colorimetric method was used to determine 表示測(cè)量方法 The results showed that 表示實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果 It was concluded that 表示結(jié)論 例2 FACTORS INVOLVED IN POAG: CAROTENOID INTAKE, EYE COLOR, ANDGIRTH MEA

34、SUREMENTS C. A. Greenell and D. M. Spillman Department of Physical Education, Health and Sports Studies, Phillops Hall, Miami University, Oxford Oh 45056 Objective: This study investigates possible effects of high intake of carotenoids 類胡羅 卜 素，eye color, and girth measurements 眼睛大小 on primary open a

35、ngle glaucoma POAG 青 光眼.Methods and Materials: Researchers designed a questionnaire that inquired about diet and family and personal health history. This questionnaire was administered to 250 individuals suffering from glaucoma. Results and Discussion: The dietary data suggested a possible correlati

36、on between low habitual intake of vitamin A, E, and C and higher risk of POAG. In addition, the number of persons suffering from POAG with blue eye color was significantly higher than those with brown or green. Finally, a possible association was suggested concerning girth measurements: those person

37、s with proportionately larger than normal girth measurements may be more likely to suffer from POAG. 117 words 分析： 本摘要只有6句話，117個(gè)詞。第1句話明確指出研究目的： 說(shuō)明類胡蘿卜素的攝人量大、 眼睛顏色及眼睛大小與青光眼的關(guān)系。 第23句是研究方法與研究對(duì)象。 方法是通過(guò)調(diào)查問(wèn)卷， 研究對(duì)象是250名青光眼患者。第 4 6句話每句話是調(diào)查結(jié)果： 1 維生素A、E、C攝人量低可能與青光眼發(fā)病率高有關(guān)系； 2 藍(lán)眼睛青光眼患者的比例遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)棕色眼睛或綠色眼睛青光眼患者； 3 眼

38、睛過(guò)大的人患青光眼的可能性更大。 本摘要中的主要句型結(jié)構(gòu)： This study investigates 表示研究?jī)?nèi)容或目的 Researchers designed a questionnaire This questionnaire was administered to The dietary data suggests that 表示調(diào)查數(shù)據(jù)與結(jié)果 A possible association has been suggested 表示調(diào)查結(jié)果 2.2學(xué)術(shù)會(huì)議論文摘要 學(xué)術(shù)會(huì)議論文摘要寫得好壞，直接關(guān)系到論文是否被錄用。摘要起到說(shuō)服會(huì)議論文評(píng)審委 員會(huì)的作用。因此，摘要應(yīng)該首先簡(jiǎn)要說(shuō)

39、明研究背景、內(nèi)容、范圍、價(jià)值與意義。在研究方法上 也可以多花一點(diǎn)筆墨。會(huì)議論文摘要一般在 200 250詞之間。 其結(jié)構(gòu)布局如圖2所示。 Title Author(s), address Background, 15revious studies, present situation, problems that need to be solved: 正文的寫作技巧 學(xué)術(shù)論文的主體局部由引言、正文和結(jié)論構(gòu)成。正文局部包括方法、結(jié)果與討論。由于學(xué) 術(shù)論文所涉及的學(xué)科、范圍廣泛，即使在同一學(xué)科領(lǐng)域內(nèi)， 由于選題、研究方法、工作進(jìn)程不同， 正文局部的內(nèi)容也不盡相同， 寫作方法也就不存在統(tǒng)一的規(guī)定或一

40、成不變的模式。 所以，本章只 著重介紹寫正文局部時(shí)一些較為典型的語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象，希望讀者能夠從中尋求到一般規(guī)律。 表示研究方法 表下研究對(duì)象 7.1描述研究方法 研究方法(Method)局部主要內(nèi)容包括： (1) 研究工作具備的根本前提或條件，如實(shí)驗(yàn)材料、實(shí)驗(yàn)場(chǎng)所、設(shè)備器材等。 (2) 采樣、實(shí)驗(yàn)、獲取數(shù)據(jù)，并對(duì)數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行技術(shù)處理的方法與過(guò)程。 (3) 理論分析，包括理論依據(jù)、根本原理、公式推導(dǎo)、數(shù)理模型等。 采樣與實(shí)驗(yàn)過(guò)程，要根據(jù)先后順序或步驟進(jìn)行描述。例 1選自描述對(duì)千屈萊這種植物生長(zhǎng) 的采樣與實(shí)驗(yàn)過(guò)程。 例l Materials and Methods 1 In August 1994 , en

41、tire purple loosestrife( 千屈萊)plants were harvested from three habitats(生長(zhǎng)環(huán)境 ):1) an upland old field in the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area in north-eastern Ohio (n=5) ； 2) a shallow ditch along Route 261 in Kent, OH (n = 10); and 3) the western shoreline of East Twin Lake, Portage County,

42、OH (n = 6). These sites represent habitats which are never inundated( 淹沒(méi))with water, are periodically inundated, or have saturated( 浸透)soils, respectively. 2Shoot sections ( 嫩枝條)of 5, 10, and 15 cm lengths were cut from these plants and positioned in flats( 平地)containing a soil mixture of perlite (

43、珍珠巖), vermiculite ( 蛭巖),and peatmoss ( 苔泥炭)(1:1:1). The flats were maintained in the Department of Biological Sciences greenhouse where they experienced ambient meteorological conditions except for 6 seconds of mist every 3. 5 minutes between 8: 00 and 20: 00 hours daily. Shoot sections and attached

44、 leaves were examined at weekly intervals for pigment ( 色質(zhì))and tissue changes as well as for development of lateral shoots. After 26 28 days the sections were rinsed to remove adherent material and dried at room temperature (approximately 22 C ) for a week. The adventitious roots from each section w

45、ere removed with needle-nose forceps, dried at 60 C for 24 hours, and then weighed to determine dry biomass. One lake site 5-cm section was lost during processing. 分析： 此局部嚴(yán)格按照時(shí)間順序描述實(shí)驗(yàn)過(guò)程。第 1段描述采樣的時(shí)間、試樣的來(lái)源與數(shù)量。名 叫年屈萊的試樣來(lái)自三個(gè)地帶，分別代表三種生長(zhǎng)環(huán)境。試樣的數(shù)量分別是 5、10、6棵。第 2段首先描述實(shí)驗(yàn)基地，及其環(huán)境與條件。然后客觀描述實(shí)驗(yàn)的詳細(xì)過(guò)程與步驟。描述某一研究 方法時(shí)，

46、要考慮讀者是否了解此方法。如果不了解，描述便需要詳細(xì)一些。這一點(diǎn)在農(nóng)、林、醫(yī) 學(xué)、教育、社會(huì)科學(xué)、環(huán)境科學(xué)等領(lǐng)域尤為突出。例 2中的選段描述的是一個(gè)關(guān)于生活用水和 農(nóng)業(yè)用水質(zhì)量函授培訓(xùn)班的教學(xué)與評(píng)估方法。由于教學(xué)過(guò)程與評(píng)估方法的特殊性，讀者事先不 可能對(duì)它有詳細(xì)了解，所以文中要描述得清楚、詳細(xì)一些。 例2 Correspondence Teaching Methods 1 The program evaluated in this research was a correspondence training course entitled Quality Water for Home and

47、Farm developed for county extension agents( 函授部學(xué) 員).The program began with a one-day meeting followed by seven monthly written lessons. The program concluded with another one-day meeting. The one lesson-per-month format was selected to allow agents to complete the assignments as part of their regula

48、r work schedule. 2 The program followed a simple model for identifying water quality problems and potential solutions. Step 1: Identify the beneficial uses of water (such as for drinking water, livestock water, irrigation, recreation). Step 2: Test the water to ensure that it is of sufficient qualit

49、y for the beneficial use. Step 3: If water quality problems are identified, examine correction options in four categories to determine which is most affordable and appropriate. The categories are: 1. Protect the supply from the contaminant; 2. Find and eliminate the contaminant source; 3. Treat the

50、water to remove the contaminant; 4. Find and develop a new water supply. 3 Steps 1 and 2 on water testing were presented to participants in the initial six-hour meeting. The first correspondence lesson also covered water testing. The six remaining correspondence lessons addressed each of the options

51、 for solving water quality problems. Water treatment was divided into three lessons; disinfection, treatment of nuisance waters, and removals of toxins. The final lesson and final meeting covered the development of new water supplies. Each written lesson contained reading material, references, teach

52、ing materials, questions, calculations, and exercises. 4 Agents taking the water quality correspondence training were required to return assignments each month to remain enrolled in the program. Letters of encouragement were sent to delinquents. At the end of the program, extension agents who comple

53、ted the program received certificates. A list of graduates was distributed to extension administrators, faculty, and staff. Evaluation Methods 5 The participants were tested to evaluate the extent of learning. Simple tests were constructed of true/false, multiple choice, and fill-in-the-blank questi

54、ons to address the important aspects of the program using methods described by Ary et al. (1990). A written pretest was administered at the beginning of the first meeting. A post test of similar but different questions was administered at the end of the closing meeting. The purpose of the pretest wa

55、s to measure the previous knowledge of the participants. The participants may also learn the subject matter from the pretest, become familiar with the testing approach and therefore be less anxious when taking the post test. 6 The post tests were used to measure the increased knowledge and skills of

56、 the participants following the inservice. The post tests also served to reinforce the most important aspects of the training and helped illustrate to the participants and instructor where additional study may be required. 7 Acquisition of new skills was evaluated using practicum exercises and demon

57、strations. Following instruction in how to interpret a test report each participant was given a water test report and asked to write their interpretation. After being taught how to collect a water sample, five agents were selected at random and asked to collect a water sample for the instructor. 8 T

58、he teaching activity of the agents was measured through their monthly assignment reports. 分析： 例2比擬詳細(xì)地描述一個(gè)函授培訓(xùn)班的管理、教學(xué)與評(píng)估方法。第 1 4段為管理與教學(xué) 方法。篇章的布局模式根本上是先后順序與步驟式， 即按照培訓(xùn)班的三個(gè)主要階段的先后順序來(lái) 安排文章的結(jié)構(gòu)。 第5 8段介紹培訓(xùn)班學(xué)習(xí)效果的評(píng)估方法。共采用三種方法進(jìn)行評(píng)估。第 5 6段介紹對(duì)主要 教學(xué)內(nèi)容的整體評(píng)估方法， 也就是將pretest培訓(xùn)前測(cè)試與posttest培訓(xùn)后測(cè)試相結(jié)合的方法。 第7段和第8段分別介紹教學(xué)過(guò)程中單

59、項(xiàng)技能評(píng)估方法。 7.1.1描述方法時(shí)的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn) 采用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)的過(guò)去式是描述實(shí)驗(yàn)方法與過(guò)程時(shí)最典型的句子結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn)。 這并不是科技英語(yǔ)寫作 中的什么規(guī)定或者原那么，而是因?yàn)樵诿枋鰧?shí)驗(yàn)過(guò)程或方法時(shí)，句子中的主題或中心是實(shí)驗(yàn)材料、 場(chǎng)地和方法本身，表達(dá) 做了什么、怎么做的之意，而不是表達(dá) 誰(shuí)做了什么因此，在描述方 法時(shí)，常將實(shí)驗(yàn)材料或受試者作為主語(yǔ)，謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞自然要用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。我們可以利用例 1和例2 中的句子加以說(shuō)明。 結(jié)論、致謝、參考文獻(xiàn) 8.1如何寫結(jié)論 學(xué)術(shù)文章的結(jié)論局部Conclusion是作者對(duì)有關(guān)研究課題進(jìn)行的總體性討論。 結(jié)論必須具有 嚴(yán)密的科學(xué)性和客觀性，它反映本研究課題的價(jià)值， 同

60、時(shí)對(duì)以后的研究具有指導(dǎo)意義。 如果文章 中的Discussion 節(jié)已對(duì)研究結(jié)果進(jìn)行了全面的分析、 綜合、歸納、推理和總結(jié)，那么Conclusion 那么可以比擬簡(jiǎn)短。 從某種意義上說(shuō)，Conclusion與Introduction 遙相照應(yīng)，因?yàn)?Introduction 局部介紹了本 課題的研究目的，那么 Conclusion要告訴讀者這些目的是否到達(dá)，在研究中做了哪些工作，取 得了什么結(jié)果，這些結(jié)果說(shuō)明了什么問(wèn)題， 有何價(jià)值和意義，研究過(guò)程中存在或發(fā)現(xiàn)了哪些問(wèn)題， 原因是什么，建議如何解決等。 8.1.1結(jié)論局部的內(nèi)容與結(jié)構(gòu)布局 一般來(lái)說(shuō)，結(jié)論局部的具體內(nèi)容及其組織框架如下。 1概括說(shuō)明