Chapter-8心理學(xué)歷史-英文版教材

1、Chapter 8BehaviorismBackground of Behaviorism The definition of learning: a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience. (behavior: any activity that can be either directly or indirectly observed) John Broadus Watson(1878-1958)DR. IVAN SECHENOV (1829-1905) DR. I

2、VAN SECHENOV born in Russia, was known as the Father of Russian physiology. He introduced electrophysiology into laboratories and also into teaching. His life work was always concentrated on neurophysiology. He wrote a major classic The Reflexes of the Brain. He also maintained that physiochemical f

3、actors in the environment of the cell are of equal if not greater importance. He was in conflict constantly with the government and his colleagues. He will also be remembered for his intellect and his knowledge, as well as for his scientific achievements.1 1、謝切諾夫（、謝切諾夫（1829182919051905） 謝切諾夫長(zhǎng)期從事神經(jīng)生理

4、學(xué)的實(shí)驗(yàn)研究，發(fā)現(xiàn)了謝切諾夫長(zhǎng)期從事神經(jīng)生理學(xué)的實(shí)驗(yàn)研究，發(fā)現(xiàn)了“中樞抑制中樞抑制”現(xiàn)象并建立了新的反射理論?，F(xiàn)象并建立了新的反射理論。 謝切諾夫把反射理解為有機(jī)體與環(huán)境的相互作用，包謝切諾夫把反射理解為有機(jī)體與環(huán)境的相互作用，包括外界對(duì)有機(jī)體的作用、反射的中樞部分腦內(nèi)進(jìn)行的括外界對(duì)有機(jī)體的作用、反射的中樞部分腦內(nèi)進(jìn)行的神經(jīng)過(guò)程、機(jī)體的應(yīng)答活動(dòng)。神經(jīng)過(guò)程、機(jī)體的應(yīng)答活動(dòng)。 新反射理論揭示了心理與大腦的聯(lián)系，證實(shí)了客觀世新反射理論揭示了心理與大腦的聯(lián)系，證實(shí)了客觀世界對(duì)心理的制約性，同時(shí)否定了心理學(xué)中的內(nèi)省方法，界對(duì)心理的制約性，同時(shí)否定了心理學(xué)中的內(nèi)省方法，確定了心理活動(dòng)規(guī)律必須借助客觀方法研

5、究的客觀性確定了心理活動(dòng)規(guī)律必須借助客觀方法研究的客觀性質(zhì)。質(zhì)。 Vladimir Mlkhailovich Bekhterev 別赫捷列夫（別赫捷列夫（1857185719271927）是蘇聯(lián)著名的老一輩生理學(xué)家、）是蘇聯(lián)著名的老一輩生理學(xué)家、心理學(xué)家和精神病學(xué)家。曾經(jīng)在馮特的心理學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)室學(xué)習(xí)，心理學(xué)家和精神病學(xué)家。曾經(jīng)在馮特的心理學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)室學(xué)習(xí)，與與18851885年在喀山大學(xué)建立俄國(guó)第一個(gè)心理學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)室，創(chuàng)立年在喀山大學(xué)建立俄國(guó)第一個(gè)心理學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)室，創(chuàng)立反射學(xué)，對(duì)心理的神經(jīng)生理基礎(chǔ)進(jìn)行了客觀研究。他被列反射學(xué)，對(duì)心理的神經(jīng)生理基礎(chǔ)進(jìn)行了客觀研究。他被列寧稱(chēng)為寧稱(chēng)為“新型的心理學(xué)家新型的心理學(xué)家

6、”。主要著作：。主要著作：關(guān)于腦功能學(xué)關(guān)于腦功能學(xué)說(shuō)的原理說(shuō)的原理（19031903）、）、腦和它的活動(dòng)腦和它的活動(dòng)(1929)(1929)、客觀客觀心理學(xué)心理學(xué)(1917)(1917)、反射學(xué)的基本原理反射學(xué)的基本原理(1918)(1918)、集體集體反射學(xué)反射學(xué)(1921)(1921)等。等。 其反射學(xué)的不足：其反射學(xué)的不足： 機(jī)械主義機(jī)械主義 忽視了意識(shí)問(wèn)題忽視了意識(shí)問(wèn)題 唯能論唯能論Ivan PavlovResearch Pavlovs research into the physiology of digestion led him logically to create the c

7、onditioned reflexes. In his study of the reflex regulation of the activity of the digestive glands, Pavlov paid special attention to the phenomenon of psychic secretion, which is caused by food stimuli at a distance from the animal. By employing the method of establishing fistulas in the ducts of th

8、e salivary glands, Pavlov was able to carry out experiments on the nature of these glands. A series of these experiments caused Pavlov to reject the subjective interpretation of psychic salivary secretion and, on the basis of Sechenovs hypothesis that psychic activity was of a reflex nature, to conc

9、lude that even here a reflex - though not a permanent but a temporary or conditioned one - was involved.Pavlovs Experiment In the early twentieth century, Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he

10、 labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlovs dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he

11、 noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.Two Basic Types of Learning Classical conditioning Process by which an inborn, in

12、voluntary behavior is produced in new situationsClassical Conditioning Based on his observations, Pavlov suggested that the salivation was a learned response. The dogs were responding to the sight of the research assistants white lab coats, which the animals had come to associate with the presentati

13、on of food. Unlike the salivary response to the presentation of food, which is an unconditioned reflex, salivating to the expectation of food is a conditioned reflex. 巴甫洛夫的主要理論思想巴甫洛夫的主要理論思想 巴甫洛夫發(fā)展了反射理論巴甫洛夫發(fā)展了反射理論 條件反射實(shí)驗(yàn)條件反射實(shí)驗(yàn) 創(chuàng)立了高級(jí)神經(jīng)活動(dòng)學(xué)說(shuō)創(chuàng)立了高級(jí)神經(jīng)活動(dòng)學(xué)說(shuō) 興奮與抑制的擴(kuò)散與集中及其相互誘導(dǎo)興奮與抑制的擴(kuò)散與集中及其相互誘導(dǎo) 條件反射和暫時(shí)神經(jīng)聯(lián)系條件反射和

14、暫時(shí)神經(jīng)聯(lián)系 高級(jí)神經(jīng)活動(dòng)的基本規(guī)律高級(jí)神經(jīng)活動(dòng)的基本規(guī)律 動(dòng)力定型動(dòng)力定型 第一信號(hào)系統(tǒng)和第二信號(hào)系統(tǒng)第一信號(hào)系統(tǒng)和第二信號(hào)系統(tǒng) 高級(jí)神經(jīng)活動(dòng)類(lèi)型學(xué)說(shuō)高級(jí)神經(jīng)活動(dòng)類(lèi)型學(xué)說(shuō)E.L. Thorndike1874 - 1949E.L. ThorndikeFirst scientific theory of learning- Theory of Connectionism Comprehensive analogy of human learning- Three volume work, Educational Psychology ( 1913a, 1913b, 1914 ) Initial

15、work with animal learning in laboratory setting- cat in box experiment” What happened ? Schunk (2000)The Cat Learned !Behavior Change = LearningThorndikes Theory of Connectionism Law of Effect If Situation + Response is followed by a positive consequence then the connection between the Situation + R

16、esponse is strengthened. If Situation + Response is followed by a negative consequence then the connection between the Situation + Response is weakened.In Thorndikes words:“When a modifiable connection between an situation and a response is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state o

17、f affairs, that connections strength is increased: When made or accompanied or followed by an annoying state of affairs, the strength is decreased.” (Thorndike, 1913b) Note: Thorndike(1932) later modified the Law of Effect when research showed that while positive consequences strengthened connection

18、s, negative consequences did not necessarily weaken them. “Spare the reward, spoil the child” by E.L. ThorndikeThe Big IdeaConsequences of behavior effect behavior, responses resulting in satisfying consequences are learned. Behavioral theories explain learning in terms of environmental events.John

19、B. Watson 1878 - 1958Watsons Life & AccomplishmentsBorn in South Carolina in 1878, his father left when John was 13. He was an unruly child and a poor student, but he had ambition. He was admitted to Furman University when he was only 16. While at Furman, he worked as an assistant in the chemist

20、ry department. Even though considered unsociable, he joined the Kappa Alpha fraternity. Ben Geer, a professor at Furman, said that Watson was “a non-conformist in college and in later life and explored theories and ideas for their sensationalism” . Watson graduated in 1899 and received his Masters a

21、fter 5 years. Going to University of Chicago in 1900 to pursue a doctorate in Psychology and Philosophy, he arrived in Chicago with $50 and nothing else. He was the youngest person to receive a PhD at the age of 25. In 1904, Watson married Mary Amelia Ickes, one of his students at Chicago. They had

22、two children, Mary (Polly) and John. In 1908, Watson joined the faculty at John Hopkins University, where he became the Director of Psychology and editor of the Psychological Review. In 1913, Watson published “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”, in which he “reviewed failings of introspective s

23、tudy, and offered a different definition of psychology, calling it the science of behavior”. Watson also proposed the “conditioned reflex as an objective methodology that could be used to investigate sensory problems that were previously thought to be accessible only through introspection.” In 1916,

24、 Watson worked with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and served as a consultant for a life insurance firm. He was also elected president of the American Psychological Association. From 1917-1919, Watson served as a Major in World War I, among a group of scientists and engineers on the National Resear

25、ch Council (which was designed to coordinate research in all branches of science). Watson designed a number of tests for future pilots, studying their reaction to the deprivation of oxygen at high altitudes and gathering data for the development of tests for flight officers. Watson was seen as a key

26、 figure to mobilize psychology for the purposes of war and was given a $6,600 grant by the US Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board regarding venereal diseases among servicemen. In 1920, (back at John Hopkins University) after embarking on his famous and controversial study of Little Albert, Watson

27、 (42) had an affair with his student/assistant, Rosaline Rayner, (21) which resulted in his divorce from first wife, Mary. Forced to resign from John Hopkins, Watson married Rayner immediately and had two more children, William and James. Watsons Life (1878-1958) 1920: Scandal Affair with student Ro

28、salie Rayner Watson forced to resign Moved into advertisingIn 1921, Watson went to work for J. Walter Thompson Company, an advertising company, making four times what he made as a professor, and in 1924, was promoted to vice president of the company. Watson continued to write psychology articles for

29、 Harpers, McCalls, Liberty, Colliers and Cosmopolitan.In 1935, Rosaline died at the age of 35 and according to Watsons son, Jim, ”never completely recovered from Rosalines death. After she died, Watson lot his panache. He sold his Westport estate in the early 1950s and moved to a small farm in Woodb

30、ury, Connecticut, where he spent his last years.” In 1945, Watson retired. He never returned to academic life, but wrote a book on infant and child care with his wife, Rosaline, entitled ”P(pán)sychological Care of Infant and Child”. All of his books and articles were criticized by his former colleagues

31、. In 1958, Watson died in New York City on September 25 at the age of 80. Just before he died, the American Psychological Association honored him with a gold medal for his outstanding contributions to psychology.John B. Watson Watson changed the focus of psychology from introspection, to environment

32、alism.The principles of learning would account for the largest share of behavioral development and are exercised almost exclusively through environmental learning opportunities provided for children. (reflected in cultural diversity & learning studies)Pavlovs Inluences on Watson John B. Watson f

33、urther extended Pavlovs work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of

34、fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watsons experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobia

35、s（恐懼） in humans.J.B. Watsons Little Albert StudyBy “pairing” a loud noise with a white rat (cute), the white rat became a CS for fear in little AlbertWhat is US? Loud NoiseWhat is UR? CryingWhat is CS? White RatWhat is CR? Crying Give me a dozen healthy infants well-formed, and my own specified worl

36、d to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might selectdoctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants（愛(ài)好）（愛(ài)好）, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of hisancestors. (Watson, 1930, p. 104) Watsons definitions of “Behaviorism” “The behaviorist viewpoint is just common sense grown articulate. Behaviorism is a study of what people do.” “Behaviorism - the natural science approach to psycholo