托福閱讀段落組織結(jié)構(gòu)

1、托福閱讀-段落內(nèi)容的組織結(jié)構(gòu) 近幾年的托福閱讀文章難度逐步增大，這種難度主要體現(xiàn)在四方面：詞匯，句式，銜接和篇章。在同學(xué)們攻克了詞匯和語(yǔ)法關(guān)后，就要學(xué)會(huì)從宏觀上來(lái)把控文章，所以今天我們就銜接方面的內(nèi)容和大家進(jìn)行探討。銜接主要是段落內(nèi)部及段落之間通過(guò)何種方式進(jìn)行語(yǔ)義連接。我們今天通過(guò)借鑒官方指南書(shū)中的文章來(lái)基本了解段落內(nèi)部的組織結(jié)構(gòu)。1 分類式 （classification） 例子Many people have to communicate and work with members of other cultures, and social skills training is now b

2、eing given to some of these who are about to work abroad. Intercultural communication is necessary for several kinds of people. Tourists are probably the largest group, though they stay for the shortest periods and need to master only a few simple situations 這個(gè)段落是典型的分類式寫(xiě)法，把需要進(jìn)行跨文化交流的人分成幾類，接下來(lái)分別描述，首當(dāng)

3、其沖的就是旅游者。官方指南1）    Desertification is accomplished primary through the loss of stabilizing natural vegetation and the subsequent accelerated erosion of soil by wind and water. (P)In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away, leaving a stony surface. In other cases, the finer

4、particles may be removed, while the sand-sized particles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridge of sand. (I)這段內(nèi)容是一個(gè)典型的總分結(jié)構(gòu)，即point + illustration。觀點(diǎn)很明顯是說(shuō)沙漠化的原因是植被消失，土壤侵蝕。接下來(lái)的論證時(shí)進(jìn)一步補(bǔ)充說(shuō)明植被消失之后，土壤可能會(huì)碰到的狀況，分成了兩種情況。一種情況松散的土壤完全被吹走，還有一種情況小顆粒被帶走，沙子大小的顆粒聚集成沙山，進(jìn)而逐步累積形成沙漠化。2）    Expanding

5、populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressure to provide them with land and fuel. (P)In wet periods, the land may be able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomenon along the desert margins, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its dimi

6、nished capacity to, and desertification results. (I )這個(gè)段落同樣講沙漠化的原因，內(nèi)部也是總分結(jié)構(gòu)，說(shuō)的是人變多，土地的壓力增大這個(gè)原因。然后分情況強(qiáng)化論點(diǎn)，天氣濕潤(rùn)還行；天氣干燥，土地就沒(méi)法處理這種人口壓力，會(huì)導(dǎo)致沙漠化。3）    Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertification processes: over cultivation, overgrazing, firewood

7、 gathering and over irrigation. 文章之后則是分別闡述每一個(gè)活動(dòng)為什么造成沙漠化。其他信號(hào)詞總結(jié)：Categories; classification; groups; parts; types; characteristics; elements; kinds; sorts; ways; classes 2 比較對(duì)比式 （Comparison and Contrast）比較式 Elephants are the biggest land creatures on Earth, and among the smartest and most endearing.

8、In their lives and social dynamics they resemble humans in many ways. 文章開(kāi)頭談到resemble，表明之后的文章會(huì)把大象同人作比較。其他信號(hào)詞總結(jié)：compare, like/alike, resembles, in comparison, likewise, similar, in the same way/manner, parallels, similarly 官方指南These Kinetoscope arcades were modeled on phonograph parlors, which had pro

9、ven successful for Edison several years earlier. In the phonograph parlors The Kinetoscope parlor functioned in a similar way. 很明顯這里是比較式寫(xiě)法，愛(ài)迪生同志所發(fā)明的K機(jī)器（用于早期的peepshow當(dāng)中的機(jī)器）的建造模型是留聲機(jī)。對(duì)比式 Long lumped together by ordinary folks and scholars alike, envy and jealousy are not a single, formless “super emot

10、ion”. On the contrary, they are distinct, with different components, and are in fact elicited by completely different situations and in completely different settings. （P）According to a Georgetown University psychologist envy occurs when a person lacks another persons superior quality, achievement, o

11、r possession, and desires it- or wishes that the other person lacked it. Jealousy, by contrast, occurs in the context of a close relationship when a person fears losing an important thing to a rival- in particular, losing a relationship that is important to ones sense of self. Jealousy, by contrast,

12、 occurs in the context of a close relationship when a person fears losing an important thing to a rival- in particular, losing a relationship that is important to ones sense of self. 這一小段文章的topic 是jealousy 和 envy 兩詞的區(qū)別。然后進(jìn)行對(duì)比論證，同時(shí)輔以舉例論證。舉例十分的形象。以后我們就知道了，當(dāng)我們和男朋友討論戀愛(ài)史時(shí)，他如果滿臉笑容的談到說(shuō)他的上一任是劉亦菲時(shí)，你的內(nèi)心很有可能會(huì)同

13、時(shí)經(jīng)歷兩種情感。你嫉妒（envy）那個(gè)前女友，那么純潔美麗；同時(shí)你更嫉妒（jealous）他的一臉笑容，那滿足的神情，因?yàn)槟阌X(jué)得這可能會(huì)破壞你們的戀愛(ài)關(guān)系。其他信號(hào)詞總結(jié)：Although, however, on the other hand, as opposed to, in contrast to, rather than, but, instead, unlike, conversely, nevertheless, whereas, difference, on the contrary, yet, different 官方指南1 With the advent of projec

14、tion in 1895-1896, motion pictures became the ultimate form of consumption. Previously, large audience had viewed spectacles at the theatre. But the movie differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment, which depended on either live performance or in the case of slide-and-lantern sho

15、ws the active involvement of a master ceremonies who assembled to final program. 本文是在講投影技術(shù)出現(xiàn)之后，電影成了消費(fèi)形式。之后的論證部分通過(guò)對(duì)比指出電影的本質(zhì)是不需要現(xiàn)場(chǎng)演出或者是大師的積極參與。2 But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reduction in tension and a lowered likelihood of

16、 future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam actually encourages more aggression later on. 探討的是catharsis （瀉藥）的用途，當(dāng)然實(shí)際是指發(fā)泄（vent aggression）的效用。這一小段內(nèi)部大方向上說(shuō)是分類結(jié)構(gòu)，不過(guò)這個(gè)分類的實(shí)質(zhì)是正反對(duì)比的兩種理論：一些認(rèn)為發(fā)泄會(huì)減少緊張，另一些認(rèn)為會(huì)進(jìn)一步鼓勵(lì)攻擊性行為。3 Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been don

17、e in homes or shops by skilled artisans After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. 這一小段是以1815作為分界線，來(lái)吧生產(chǎn)形式作一個(gè)對(duì)比，之前是手工，之后是機(jī)器。3 舉例子（Example） 托福閱讀的文章科普性比較重，所以例子基本以科學(xué)研究為主。官方指南 例子一 Cognitive psychologists assert th

18、at our behavior is influenced by our values by the ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are likely to act aggressively whereas 這個(gè)例子舉了兩組人來(lái)論證我們的價(jià)值觀會(huì)影響我們的行為（攻擊性）。大家可以借鑒學(xué)術(shù)文章舉例子的方式，很少用my neighbor Jack 這樣具體的例子，

19、一般都是泛泛的談，相對(duì)具有說(shuō)服力。例子二 Theorists hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life 這一段用的是弗洛伊德的例子，本質(zhì)上是科學(xué)研究。結(jié)合例一例二，大家以后寫(xiě)學(xué)術(shù)文章例子的思路就有了，少舉太過(guò)個(gè)人

20、的例子，可以側(cè)重整體概念和名人例子。例子三 Sociobiology views mush social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwins theory of evolution. Darwin held that 這一段要表明攻擊行為性是基因決定的，之后引入達(dá)爾文進(jìn)化論，本質(zhì)上還是科學(xué)研究。模擬試題 1 Several studies how that getting fewer than six hours of sleep a night can imp

21、air short-term memory, coordination, reaction time, and judgment. In one study of drivers, researchers reported that sleep deprivation has some of the same hazardous effects as being drunk 這一段是要來(lái)說(shuō)明缺乏睡眠對(duì)人體可能會(huì)產(chǎn)生的影響，然后通過(guò)引入以駕駛員作為主體的例子來(lái)論證。2 However, no measure of early family environment or early-adult c

22、ompetence remained a significant predictor of psychological well being at the end of middle age. One study of men revealed that at the age of 65, there were no childhood or early-adulthood characteristics that distinguished between men who had turned out well and those who had not. However, what did

23、 predict success and well being at the age of 65 was the mans health and adjustment at midlife. 這篇文章講生活幸福感。這一段的觀點(diǎn)是家庭因素對(duì)于中年男人而言就不是那么重要了。什么才重要？文中指出是你中年時(shí)的抉擇決定你之后生活是否幸福的。這一觀點(diǎn)可以馬上運(yùn)用到SAT的寫(xiě)作中，Is identity something you are born with or something you create for yourself?或者是雅思作文中對(duì)于nature（先天因素） 和nurture（后天培育）

24、哪個(gè)更重要的問(wèn)題的討論信號(hào)詞總結(jié)：for example, for instance, to illustrate, specifically, such as 實(shí)驗(yàn)論證是學(xué)術(shù)文章（比如雅思考試）中間段落論證的殺手锏，這里給大家提供一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的對(duì)比試驗(yàn)，供大家參考來(lái)論證你的觀點(diǎn)。An experiment carried out by Japanese Central Educational Agency explores students performances in relation to teachers encouragement, and revealed that students

25、 who get praise, even overrated, perform better than those who dont get praises. A number of fifty students are divided into two groups. In one group, the teacher uses conservative method to teach, students get only conservative praise if they performed good, and will be criticized if they made mist

26、akes. In another group, the students are highly praised if well performed, and will still get encouragement if they made mistakes. They overall performance was tested through a standardized examination at the end of two months. The group of students who get praise scored 15 percent higher than the o

27、ther group. Such an experiment further proved that encouragement, even overrated, will have a positive effect on people. 4 因果論證(cause and effect) 例子一Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typically results in the loss of the soils ability to absorb substantial quanti

28、ties of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated

29、 erosion rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established. 這是一個(gè)非常漂亮的因果鏈論證觀點(diǎn)的段落，值得背誦，它的邏輯關(guān)系如下。P: 即使在有土壤覆蓋的地方，植被減少也會(huì)導(dǎo)致土壤吸水能力下降。為什么呢？雨水打在松散的土壤上-移走密封小粘土顆粒（粘土可以大量吸水）-產(chǎn)生一個(gè)不能讓水進(jìn)入的表面-結(jié)果是流出的水變多-進(jìn)一步導(dǎo)致土壤被水侵蝕；同時(shí)土地吸水能力不足-土地干旱-進(jìn)一步導(dǎo)致植被減少-惡