英語語言學(xué)布拉格學(xué)派純英文

1、The Prague SchoolContentIntruductionPhonology and Phonological OppositionsFunctional Sentence PerspectiveIntruductionFunded:in 1926. CzechoslovakiaFunder:a professor at the Charlie University of Prague V. Mathesius (1882 - 1946) V.馬泰休斯Main activists:included R. Jakobson R.雅柯布遜(1896 - 1982) and N. Tr

2、ubetzkoy 特魯別茨科伊(1890-1938).One of the main schools of structural linguistics. Activity center is the Prague language instituteAlso called functionl language.崔健Chronicle of the Prague SchoolChronicle of the Prague SchoolAccording to the changes of its main members and research interests of the transf

3、er into two stages: the first stage from 1926 to build the Second World War broke out; 1915 - The foundation of the Moscow Linguistic circle, Jakobson being the president. 1917- Members fleeing Moscow due to October Revolution.1926 - The foundation of the Prague School Linguistic Circle, Jakobson be

4、ing the vice president1928 - Presenting the Prague Circle manifesto 1929 - the First International Congress of Slavists in Prague. Came up with Outline1930 - International phonetic system representative conferencein Prague (detail on language, especially on phonetic structure). 1939 - disruption. th

5、e second stage is from the end of the fiftys and early sixtys to now1960s - sentence pattern model functional sentence perspective functional generative approach1970s - Linguistic activity interrupted againAfter 1989 - New societys activities to resumeCharacteristicOf the many ideas developed in Pra

6、gue School, three points are of special importance. First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. Third, language was looked

7、on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it. phonetics (語音學(xué)): Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages, i.e. how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phone

8、tic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.phonology (音系學(xué)): Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.2 Phonology and Phonologi

9、cal OppositionsTrubetzkoy Principles of Phonologyphonetics belonged to parole and phonology belonged to languethe notion of phonemean abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced.A phoneme may be defined as the sum of the differential functions.Sounds may be phonem

10、es in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.distinctive featuresA distinctive feature is one that distinguish one phoneme from the another. For example: b and p are the same in every way except that the former is voiced, while latter is voiceless. Therefore, voicing is a distinctive featur

11、e. In classifying distinctive features ,Trubetzkoy proposed three criteria:their relation to the whole contrastive system;relations between the opposing elements; andtheir power of discrimination.Phonological oppositions Phonological opposition two elements (two phonemes in phonology) only differ in

12、 one feature. E.g. in English /g/ in gut, and /k/ in cut are said to be in opposition because the only difference between them is that /g/ is voiced, and /k/ is voiceless. However, /k/ and /b/ are not in phonological oppositions because they differ in several ways including place of articulation and

13、 voicing.Trubetzkoy distinguished nine phonological oppositions among phonemes . Nine phonological oppositions of phonemes bilateral opposition 雙邊對立雙邊對立 If the features which two phonemes share belong only to them, they are bilateral opposition; In other words, the features they have in common do no

14、t occur simultaneously in any other phoneme.eg. /p/ and /b/ multilateral opposition 多邊對立多邊對立It is a more loosely established relationship: /a/ and /i/ for instence are alike only to the extent that both are vowels, a quality shared by ant other pairs of vowels. proportional opposition 均衡對立均衡對立. Two

15、phonemes are proportional if the same contrastive features also serve as the differentiating criterion for other pairs of phonemes.E.g. /p/ and /b/, /t/ and /d/, /k/ and /g/ are all distinguished by voice. isolated opposition 孤立對立孤立對立If the contrastive feature is unique to the pair, that is , it is

16、not a contrastive feature of any other pairs of pnonemes in the language, then the phonemes are isolated opposition.For example, English, /y/ and /l/,the former is labial-dental fricative the later is lateral voiced.privative opposition 否定對立否定對立One member of a contrastive pair mat be characterised b

17、y the presence of a certain feature, the other by its absence.aspiration VS lack of aspiration as between /p/ and /b/.gradual opposition 分級對立分級對立 the pairs share different digrees of a featureequipollent opposition 等價對立等價對立 Two phonemes are not in gradual opposition, nor in privative opposition, the

18、y are logically equipollent. E.G. /t/ and /p/, /t/ and /k/ in English. neutralizable opposition 抵消對立抵消對立Two phonemes are in oppositions in some positions but not in others. E.g /b/ and /p/ do not show contrast after /s/. constant opposition 永恒對立永恒對立 The pair of sounds occurs in all possible position

19、s without being neutralised.Trubetzkoy s contributions to phonological theory Trubetzkoy s contributions to phonological theory concern four aspects. First, he showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition for the phoneme. Second, by making distinctions between phonet

20、ics and phonology, he defined the sphere of phonological studies. Third, by studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes, he revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes. Finally, he put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.12.1.3 Functional Sente

21、nce Perspective功能句法觀DefinitionThe functional point of viewCommunication DynamismDegree of CDDefinition of FSPIt is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances(or texts) in terms of the information they contain.功能句法觀是語言學(xué)分析的理論，指用所含信息來分析話語或篇章。The principle is that the role

22、 of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.其基本原則是話語中每一個部分的作用取決于其對全句意義的貢獻(xiàn)。The functional point of viewHenri Weil 1818-1909 The communication of ideas is a movement from the point of departure(出發(fā)點(diǎn))(known information ) to a goal of discourse (講話目標(biāo)) (new information)

23、.Mathesius developed the ideas of Weil, and termed the patterning of utterance/sentences into theme (point of departure)rheme (goal of discourse) or theme transition rheme as FSP since this patterning is determined by the functional orientation of the speaker.The functional point of viewTheme Someth

24、ing already known from the preceding context or as information taken for granted and does not contribute anything new to the information to be transmitted. Rheme The new information to the hearer.E.g John has fallen ill. Theme Rheme (主位) (述位)The functional point of viewIt is believed that the moveme

25、nt from the Theme to the Rheme reveals the movement of the mind itself (ideas).FSP describes how information is distributed in sentences. It deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse.The functional point of viewProblems with Mathesiu

26、s definition of theme and rhemee.gAn unknown man asked him the way to the railway station. (“An unknown man” is unknown information.)The functional point of viewThe Subject-Predicate distinction is not always the same as the Theme-Rheme contrast.For example: Sally stands on the table. Subject Predic

27、ate Theme Rheme On the table stands Sally. Predicate Subject Theme Rheme Jan Firbas (19212000) Based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static phenomenon, but a dynamic one , J.Firbas developed the notion of Communicative Dynamism (CD)Redefined theme and rheme according to the contri

28、bution of parts of the sentence to the (further) development of a conversation. Communicative Dynamism (CD) 交際動態(tài)交際動態(tài) / 交際力交際力Communicative Dynamism (CD) 交際動態(tài)交際動態(tài) / 交際力交際力CD is defined as the extent to which the linguistic unit contributes towards the development of the conversation , and its meant t

29、o measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence.The distribution of degrees of CD in a sentence determines the functional perspective of that sentence. theme - given information - carries the lowest degree of CD contributes least to the further development of the communication R

30、heme - new information - carries the highest degree of CD contributes greatest to the further development of the communicationE.g.A: What about Peter?B: He has flown to Paris. “He” has the smallest contribution, so it carries the lowest degree of CD, but “to Paris” has the greatest contribution, so

31、it carries the highest degree of CD. “has flown” is between “He” and “to Paris” . Factors affecting the distribution of the degrees of CD Grammatical structure Linear modification線性修飾 The context of the utterance Semantic structure 語意結(jié)構(gòu) 1. “Linear modification”（線性修飾）線性修飾） (which basically means word

32、 order)In a normal sentence, constituents take increasing degrees of CD, with the final element being the most important because it completes the communicative purpose of the sentence. By linear arrangement, the element closest to the end of the sentence contributes greatest to the development of th

33、e conversation and carries the highest degree of CD. “She could not attend the lecture because she was ill. 2.Context（語境）語境） Context-dependent elements (pronouns，phrases such as, this book, the man etc.), regardless of sentence position, have low degrees of CD since they carry known information and

34、contribute little to the conversation. E.g. Police have caught the man. (the man carries the smallest CD.) I used to know him. (him carries the smallest CD.) 3.semantic (the purpose of communication)Contextual dependence or independence is determined by the very purpose of the communication.In the f

35、ollowing 5 situations, CD has no direct link with the position of linguistic element in linear arrangement, but affected by its semantic structure. 1) E.g. “I have bought a book. Contextually independent object carries the higher degree of CD 2) E.g. I didnt know you were hurrying to the railway station. Contextually independent adverbial element carries the higher degree of CD than a verb expressing motion. 3) Normally