英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)chapter110

1、Chapter 1 Basic concepts of words and vocabulary 1 定義The definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unit of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given so

2、und and meaning and syntactic function. 2 聲音和意義Sound and Meaning:  symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.3- 拼寫變化的原因Old Englis

3、h, the speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 1 The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double

4、duty or work together in combination. 2 Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.  3 A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4 Finally comes the bo

5、rrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.4- 詞匯定義Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary.  Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period

6、. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words. 分類Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use

7、 frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.4-1 基本詞匯 The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a

8、small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics.（5特點(diǎn)）4-1-1 全民性All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the peo

9、ple who speak the language Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions 4-1-2 穩(wěn)定性Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.4-1-3 能產(chǎn)性Productivity . Words of the basic wor

10、d stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.4-1-4 多義性Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes i

11、n the course of use and become polysemous. 4-1-5 搭配性Collocability . Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.4-2 非基本詞匯nonbasic (7種)4-2-1 術(shù)語(yǔ)Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academi

12、c areas .4-2-2行話Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.4-2-3 俚語(yǔ)Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words i

13、ncluding informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages al

14、together. Slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive. 4-2-4 黑話Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals. 4-2-5 方言語(yǔ)Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. 4-2-6 古語(yǔ)言Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted on

15、ly to specialized or limited use.4-2-7 新詞語(yǔ)Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.5-1 實(shí)義詞 Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, ph

16、enomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity.5-2 功能詞Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form

17、 words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. - However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words. 6-1 本族語(yǔ)詞Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes; the Angles, the Saxo

18、ns, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. - native words have two other features:1-Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific. Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropiate i

19、n formal style.2-Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing.6-2 外來(lái)語(yǔ)詞 Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modem

20、English vocabulary. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.6-2-1 同化詞denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language.6-2-2 非同化詞Aliens are borrowed words wh

21、ich have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.6-2-3 譯借詞translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.6-2-4 借義詞S

22、emantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language. Chapter 2 The development of the English vocabulary It is assumed that the world has approximat

23、ely 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. 八大語(yǔ)族They accordingly fa

24、ll into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian , Armenian and Albanian ; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such

25、modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit. 希臘In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.日耳曼語(yǔ)系T

26、he Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English. 1-1 Old English (450-1150) Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of

27、 about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German. 1-2 Middle English (1150-1500) Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-fi

28、ve percent of them are still in use today. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings. 1-3 Modern English (1500-up to now)Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present)

29、Modern English.In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance. Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western worlds great literary heritage and of great scholarship. In fact,

30、more than twenty-five per cent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language. 2 詞匯的發(fā)展原因Three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern scien

31、ce and technology(45%); life-style constitute (24%); the influence of social and economic terms(11%). 2 發(fā)展方式Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing. 2-1 創(chuàng)詞Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roo

32、ts, affixes and other elements. In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2-2 舊詞新意Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enri

33、ching the vocabulary. 2-3 借詞Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, French, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributiors.2-4 Revivi

34、ng archaic or obsolete words(復(fù)活古詞和廢棄詞) also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. Chapter 3 Word fomation 詞素These different forms occur owing to different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme

35、 is "the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words".Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.單語(yǔ)素詞These morphemes

36、coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words. 詞素變體Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. There are

37、 cases where the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are realized by the change of an internal vowel or by zero morph. 1-1 自由詞素Free Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical uni

38、ts in sentences. They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root, we might as well say that free morphemes are free roots.（mancarearth）1-2 粘附詞素Bound Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morpheme

39、s to form words.  Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words. Include two types: bound root and affix. 1-2-1 粘附詞根Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morp

40、hemes to make words. In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing. 1-2-2 詞綴Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them

41、into two groups: 1-2-2-1 曲折詞綴Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable. ed -ing -es1-2-2-2 派生詞綴Derivational affixes. As the term indicates, derivational aff

42、ixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes come before the word and the suffixes after the word. (prewar, subsea)6-1 詞根A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without tota

43、l loss of identity. The root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. Root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. 6-2 詞干A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root

44、 morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful. A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Chapter 4 Word Formation 8種構(gòu)詞法affixation(30%-40%), companding(28%-30%), conversion(26%), shortening(

45、8%-10%), blending(1%) , clipping, Acronymy，Back-formation1 詞綴法Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation派生構(gòu)詞, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words forme

46、d in this way are called derivatives派生詞. 1-1 前綴法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 9 groups: Negative prefixes, Reversative prefixes, Pejorative prefixes, Prefixes of degree o

47、r size, Prefixes of orientation and attitude, Locative prefixes, Prefixes of time and order, Number prefixes, Miscellaneous prefixes. 1-2 后綴法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the gra

48、mmatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. When the suffix under discussion is added to the stem, whatever class it belongs to, the result will be a noun or an adjective. 1-2-1 Noun suffixes :1) Denominal nouns: a. Concrete -er, b. Abstract -ship.2) Deverbal nouns

49、: a. The suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people, b. Suffixes added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc.3) De-adjective nouns -ity.4) Noun and adjective suffixes -ese.1-2-2 Adjective suffixes :1) Denominal suf

50、fixes -ed,2) Deverbal suffixes -able.1-2-3 Adverb suffixes ly -wise; 1-2-4 Verb suffixes ate,-en.2 復(fù)合構(gòu)詞法Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more

51、than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. 2-1區(qū)別、特點(diǎn)Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects: 1). 語(yǔ)音特點(diǎn)Phonetic features In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is gene

52、rally stressed if there is only one stress. In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary stress, if any, on the second whereas the opposite is true of free phrases 2). 語(yǔ)義特點(diǎn)Semantic features Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic

53、unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. 3). 語(yǔ)法特點(diǎn)Grammatical features A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes. 2-2

54、構(gòu)成3大類Noun compounds, adjective compounds, verb compounds3 轉(zhuǎn)類法Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally c

55、onsidered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class, without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation. Word produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.3-1 - Many simple nouns convened from verbs can be used with ha

56、ve, take, make, give etc. to form phrases to replace the verb or denote a brief action. Words like hand-out, stand-by, lay-by, teach-in, shut-down are all converted from phrasal verbs. 3-2 Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely conver

57、ted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. 1 Words fully converted. A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an indefinite article or - (e)s to indicate singular or plural number. 2 Words partia

58、lly converted. Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. 3-3 變化：1 voiceless to voiced consonant; 2 initial to end stress.4 拼綴法Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a w

59、ord plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or portmanteau words. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns; very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines. Head+tail; head+head; head+word; word+tail.5 截?cái)喾ˋnother common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains in