學習工具4孤閱認知偏誤表

1、TOO MUCH INFORMATIONWe notice things already primed in memory or repeated often.Availability heuristicThe tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged th

2、ey may be.可得性 法容易想到的事，其發(fā)生概率會受高估，然而一件事是否容易想到還受發(fā)生多久、激起情緒的程度等因素影響，無法反映實際的發(fā)生概率。Attentional biasThe tendency of our perception to be affected by our recurring thoughts.注意力偏誤的事，會影響我們的感知。Illusory truth effectA tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is easier to process, or if it has been stated

3、 multiple times, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific cases of truthiness.幻覺真實效應當一個人 知許多次某個信息是正確可靠的時候，那么無論這個信息是否真的可靠，那個人都會覺得這個信息是正確可靠的。（例子：三人成虎）從眾產生：大家都這么想，一定是對的。Mere exposure effectThe tendency to express undue liking for thinerely because of familiarity with them.多看效應或單純接觸效應對熟悉的人與

4、事產生過多的好感。明星發(fā)自拍“刷臉”聚粉Context effectThat cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa)情境效應某情境中的記憶在其他情境下較不易回想。Cue-d

5、ependent forgetting線賴性遺忘工作中減少任務切換成本的方式：Cue-dependent forgetting, or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall information without memory cues. The term either pertains to semantic cues, state-dependent cues or context-dependent cues.任務進行節(jié)點便于及時返回，繼續(xù)進行Mood-congruent memory biasThe improved recall of

6、 information congruent with one's current mood.心境相合性記憶偏誤與當下心境相合的資訊會比較容易回想。Frequency illusionThe illusion in which a word, a name, or other thing that has recently cone's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards (not to be confused with the recency illus

7、ion or selection bias). This illusion may explain some examples of the Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon, whereby someone hears a new word or phrase repeatedly in a short span of time.頻率錯覺因最近注意到一件原先沒注意到的事，就覺得這件事到處都在發(fā)生。（參見近因錯覺及選擇偏誤）Baader-Meinhof PhenomenonThis phenomenon occurs when the thing you've jus

8、t noticed, experienced or been told about suddenly crops up constantly. It gives you the feeling that out of nowhere, pretty much everyone and their cousin arking about the subject - or that it is swiftly surrounding you. And you're not crazy; you are-邁因 現(xiàn)象當你了解到一個新知識，比如新 、新概念等， 之后你就會有機會再一次遇到它。這就

9、是 -邁因 現(xiàn)象。totally seeing it more. But the thing is, of course, that's because you're noticing it moreEmpathy gapThe tendency to underestimate the influence or strength of feelings, in either oneself or others.移情隔閡也稱移情差異、移情隔閡，人們低估情感的影響或者 的傾向。Omission biasThe tendency to judge harmful actions a

10、s worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions (inactions).偏誤認為主動作為導致比導致 更糟糕、更不道德，即使后者 與前者相當或比后者 。電車難題“”也是一種選擇Base rate fallacyThe tendency to ignore base rate information (generic, general information) and focus on specific information (information only pertaining to a certain case).基本比率謬誤只

11、關注 性的資訊，忽略一般性的資訊（基本比率），導致不恰當的認知。例如因為酒駕較容易肇事，就認為肇事者多半是酒駕，然而由于酒駕者占所有駕駛者的比率甚小，肇事者之中酒駕者的比例 那。Bizarre, funny, visually-striking, or anthropomorphic things stick out more than non- bizarre/ unfunny things.Bizarreness effectBizarre material is better remembered than common material.怪異效應怪異的事比尋常的事更容易記住。Humor

12、 effectThat humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones, which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time to understand the幽默效應幽默的事比不幽默的事更容易記住，可能的解釋是幽默的事有較長的認知處理時間，或造成較多的情緒激發(fā)。humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the humor.Von

13、 Restorff effectThat an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items.效應醒目的事或特別強調的事比其他的事更容易記住。要想成為暢銷書，首先要成為。Picture superiority effect The picture superiority effect, or pictorial superiority effect is the term that resulted from experiments that have shown that in human memo

14、ry recall, pictures outperform text dramatically. When information is presented orally, after 3 days, people will only remember 10% of it.圖畫優(yōu)異性效應也稱圖優(yōu)效應，通過圖片來傳達的信息記憶效果要比通過文字傳達的更好。Self-relevance effectThat memories relating to the self are better recalled than similar information relating to others.自身

15、相關效應與自身相關的訊息較易回想， 與他人相關的較不易。Negativity biasPsychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater recall of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories.偏誤容易回想消極的回憶而不易回想積極的。i/Rumination (psychology)反芻思維（Rumination）We notice when something has changed.AnchoringThe tendency to rely too heavily

16、, or "anchor", on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject)錨定效應為不熟悉事物估值時，會把熟悉的類似事物或 前接觸到的無關數值當做“錨”，估出來的數值會大大傾向“錨”。Anchoring定價，談判，舒適區(qū)Law of the instrumentConservatism保守傾向 ()Conservatism (belief revision)The tend

17、ency to revise one's belief insufficiently when presented with new evidence.新證據出現(xiàn)時，對既有信念的幅度不足。BayesContrast effectThe enhancement or reduction of a certain perception's stimuli when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object.對比效應感受特質的程度主要是受與其他相關事物的對比程度影響， 而非受其實際程度影響。如何增加一件商品的銷售量？（

18、在它旁邊放一個明顯次于它的商品Distinction biasThe tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.差異偏差相較于比較，兩件事物放在一起比較，差異會顯得更 大。Focusing effectThe tendency to place too much importance on one aspect of an event.聚焦效應過分關注事情的某些明顯面 向、忽略不明顯面向，導致不恰

19、當的預期。Framing effectDrawing differents from the same information, depending on how that information is presented框架效應同一資訊以不同方式呈現(xiàn)方式會帶來不同想法，例 十分之九的存活率”和“有十分之一的 率”。Money illusionThe tendency to concentrate on the nominal value (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power.貨幣錯覺專

20、注于貨幣名目上（表面上） 的價值，而非其實質力。Weber-Fechner law Difficulty in comparinall differences in large quantities.定理（Weber-Fechner law）分為及費兩種定理，定理又稱“感覺閾限定律”（absolute threshold），用于差異閾限定義。定律：在同類刺激之下， 其差異閾限的大小是隨著標準刺激強弱而成一定比例關系 的，K=I/I K 為常數。定律：在絕對閾限之 上，的感覺強度與刺激強度的改變，兩者間呈對數的關系，亦即，刺激強度如果按幾何級數增加，而引起的感覺強度卻只按算術級數增加。We ar

21、e drawn to details that confirm our own existing beliefs.Confirmation biasThe tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.確認偏誤關注、尋找、詮釋、記憶資訊的方向多半是能確認 成見的方向。i/Cognitive dissonance Cognitive dissonance 認知失調Awho experiences inconsi

22、stency tends to become psychologically uncomfortable, and so is motivated to try to reduce the cognitive dissonance occurring, and actively avoids situations and information likely to increase the psychological discomfort.Congruence biasThe tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct test

23、ing, instead相合性偏誤直接檢驗假設，卻沒想到要檢驗其他可能的假設。of testing possible alternative hypotheses.Post-purchase rationalization The tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was good value.購后合理化后把之前的 決定合理化，即使買下的 太過昂貴或發(fā)現(xiàn)瑕疵。Choice-supportive biasIn a self-justifying manner retroactively a

24、scribing one's choices to be more informed than they were when they were made.支持選擇偏誤回顧 做過的選擇時，傾向認為是明智的（參見支持選擇偏誤）。Selective perceptionThe tendency for expectations to affect perception.選擇性知覺由于對人或事有特定期待，因而傾向于注意符合期待的事 件，忽略或忘卻不符合期待的。我們在用特定的方式世界，世界是客觀的，我們 世界的方式是的。生病時沒人問候：怕打擾到自己？還是根本不關心？Observer-expec

25、tancy effect When a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also subject-expectancy effect).觀察者期望效應由于研究者期待某種結果，因而下意識中不適當地操作實驗或詮釋資料（參見受試者期望效應）。Experimenter's biasThe tendency for experimenters to believ

26、e, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear towith those expectations.實驗者偏誤實驗者傾向相信、認可、發(fā)布符合他們期望的結果，而不 信、貶低、棄置不符合的。Observer effect (Actor- observer bias)觀察者偏

27、誤我：交通堵塞。The actor-observer bias is a term in social psychology that refers to a tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes, while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes.也稱行為者-觀察者偏誤，解釋其他的行為時過分強調內在個性的影響，而輕視當時的外在情況（參見基本歸因錯誤Fundamental attribution error），而在解釋行為時則

28、與此相反。別人：你就是一個不守時的人。Expectation biasThe tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear towith those expectations.期望偏誤實驗者傾向相

29、信、認可、發(fā)布符合他們期望的結果，而不 信、貶低、棄置不符合的。Ostrich effect Ignoring an obvious (negative) situation.鴕鳥效應忽視明顯的（）情況。Subjective validation Perception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences.驗證或 確認相信某事是對的，就感覺它是對的。也會把巧合的事當做有關聯(lián)?！皬?/p>

30、加因果” 弱相關性Continued influence effect The tendency to believe previously learned misinformation even after it has been corrected.Misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a correction has occurred.持續(xù)影響效應即使先前已知的錯誤信息被糾正了，人們仍然有相信它的傾向。First impressions matterSemmelweis reflex塞反射The

31、 tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.條件反射般地 、拒絕新證據或新知識，因其抵觸現(xiàn)有的常規(guī)、信仰或價值觀。We notice flaws in others more easily than we notice flaws in ourselves.Bias blind spotThe tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in othe

32、rs than in oneself.偏見盲點認為比其他人更能辨識認知偏誤，也較不易受影響。Naïve cynicismExpecting more egocentric bias in others than in oneself.素樸犬儒認為別人的自我中心偏誤或者利己行為比?！袄毙袨榈娜?，早已被淘汰了。Naïve realismThe belief that we see reality as it really is objectively and without bias; that the facts are plain for all to see; tha

33、t rational people will agree with us; and that those who don't are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased.素樸實在論相信 所見所聞即是 、是客觀且不帶偏見的，認為這是顯而易見的事實，理性人一定會同意 ，不同意的人一定是資訊不足、懶惰、不理性或有偏見。我都不知道的事情，能是真的么？NOT ENOUGH MEANINGWe tend to find stories and patterns even when looking at sparse data.Confabu

34、lationA form of misattribution where imagination is mistaken for a memory.虛談產生虛構的事填補記憶空白， 即使沒有意圖。例如的幼年 給他看，他往往能說出以前做那些事的過程與回憶，但實際上他根本沒做過。常見于記憶 的患者。Clustering illusionThe tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phant

35、om patterns).集群錯覺過度期待從小樣本或小型測試中發(fā)現(xiàn)的規(guī)律，然而這些小樣本或小型測試是從大樣本隨機抽取，大樣本往往并無這種規(guī)律。Insensitivity to sample size The tendency to under-expect variation in small samples.對樣本數不敏銳評估統(tǒng)計數據時，未考慮小樣本比大樣本更容易觀察到結果。Neglect of probabilityThe tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertaint

36、y.忽略可能性對于不確定的事，無法準確評估其發(fā)生概率，不是完全無 視，便是過分高估。Anecdotal fallacyYou used aal experience or an isolated example instead of a sound argument or compelling evidence.軼事謬誤指根據軼事證據做出一般化的推論。由于傳聞通常不具好的代表性，據此做出的一般化推論通常是不可靠的。Illusion of validityBelief that furtherly acquired information generates additional relevan

37、t data for效度的錯覺高估面談或直接觀察的效度且能用于提供 ，即使證據指出它們影響甚微。predictions, even when it evidently does not.Masked man fallacyIn philosophical logic, the masked-man fallacy (also known as the intensional fallacy and the epistemic fallacy) is committed when one makes an illicit use of Leibniz's law in an argume

38、nt. Leibniz's law states that, if one object has a certain property, while another object does not have the same property, the two objects cannot be identical.蒙面人謬誤一種形式謬誤，是因不當代換指涉對象造成的錯誤推論。Recency illusionThe illusion that a word or language usage is a recent innovation when it is in fact long-e

39、stablished (see also frequency illusion).新詞錯覺感覺某些字詞或語句是新發(fā)明的，然而它實際上歷史悠久。例如英語用“they”表達單數不確定 對象、“you and I”（而非 you and me）。Gambler's fallacyThe tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. The fallacy arises from an erroneous conceptual

40、ization of the law of large numbers.For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads."賭徒謬誤認為某事多次發(fā)生則未來發(fā)生的概率會較小，或多次未發(fā)生則未來發(fā)生的概率會較大。擲，擲硬幣。Illusory correlation Inaccurately perceiving a r

41、elationship between two unrelated events.錯覺相關若認為兩件事相關，回憶會覺得兩者同時發(fā)生的頻率較高。PareidoliaA vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the man in the moon, and hearing non- existent hidden messages on records played in r

42、everse.空想性錯視從模糊、隨機的影像中看出有意義的東西，例如從云朵中看出臉孔。有時也延伸指聽覺， 如 帶倒播時聽出特別的訊息。AnthropomorphismThe tendency to characterize animals, objects, and abstract concepts as possessing human-like traits, emotions, and intentions.擬人論是一種擬人法（ification、prosopopoeia）（或稱“智慧體化”）的使用，將人類（或稱“智慧體”）的形態(tài)、外觀、特征、情感、性格特質套用到 類的生物、物品、自然或

43、超自然現(xiàn)象（或稱“非智慧體”）。We fill in characteristics from stereotypes, generalities, and prior histories.Group attribution error The biased belief that the characteristics of anindividual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the pre

44、ferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.群體歸因錯誤把 的特質當作其所屬群體的特質，或把 的行為當做其所屬群體的偏好。Ultimate attribution error終極歸因錯誤Similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error ais likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of th

45、e individuals within the group.把問題歸因于整個群體，而非群體中的。StereotypingExpecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual.刻板印象根據事物的所屬類別或群體判斷其特質，而忽略其獨特性。歸類，讓我們理解世界更加容易。（節(jié)省認知）EssentialismEssentialism is the view that for any specific entity ther

46、e is a set of attributes which are necessary to its identity and function. In Western thought the concept is found in the work of Plato and Aristotle.本質一種認為任何的實體（如一只動物，一群人，一個物理對 象，一個觀念）都有一些必須具備的本質的觀點。Functional fixedness Limits ato using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.功能固著受物品的一般用

47、途局限，無法想到用特別的用物品。Moral credential effectThe tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.道德認證效應由于得到了某些高道德的評價或認證，而認為做得夠 好，反而在其他面向做了相反的事。例如投身環(huán)?；顒硬⑹艿奖頁P的人，往往忽略了許多的不環(huán)保行為。Just-world hypothesisThe tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, ca

48、using them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).公正世界理論相信世界是公平的，發(fā)生在身上的都是應得的，把難以解釋的歸責于受害者的報 應。Argument from fallacy Argument from fallacy is the formal fallacy of analyzing an argument and inferring that, since it contains a fallacy, itsmust be false. It is a

49、lso called argument to logic (argumentum ad logicam), fallacy fallacy, fallacist's fallacy, and bad reasons fallacy.謬誤謬誤基于某論證無效推得其結論為假。Authority biasThe tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.

50、權威偏見看重某位權威的意見，特別是在我們所知無幾的議題 上。Automation biasThe tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions.自動化偏誤過度依賴于自動化的系統(tǒng)，這可能導致錯誤的自動化信息取代正確的決定。Bandwagon effectThe tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people d

51、o (or believe) the same. Related to groupthink and herd behavior.從眾效應傾向做很多人做的事或相信很多人相信的事?！胺ú回煴姟?，所有人承擔責任往往意味著沒有人承擔責 任。Placebo effecta beneficial effect, produced by a placebo drug or treatment, that cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must therefore be due to the patient

52、's belief in that treatment.安慰劑效應或偽藥效應 給予無效的或治療， 卻相信或覺得情況。先通過“雙盲測試”（Double-blind trials）在測試中經常使盲測試。被隨機編入對照組及實驗組。對照組被給予安慰 劑，而實驗組給予真正。無論是或觀察的實驗都不知道誰得到真正的藥物，直至研究結束為止。We imagine things and people we're familiar with or fond of as better.Out-group homogeneity bias The out-group homogeneity effect

53、 is one's perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members, e.g. "they are alike; we are diverse".外團體同質性偏差人們常常因為外團體對 較不具價值、接觸不多，而認為內團體成員較多元化，而視外人都具有相同性質；這現(xiàn)象叫做外團體同質性偏差。Cross-race effectThe tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identif

54、ying members of a race other than their own.跨種族效應難以分辨其他種族的人。In-group biasThe tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.群內偏誤或稱 偏誤，人們對認為是屬于 這一方的成員有優(yōu)先或者較好待遇的傾向，即偏向某個人 的群體。“非我族類，其心必異?！盚alo effectThe tendency for a's positive or negat

55、ive traits to "spill over" from oneality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also physical attractiveness stereotype).月暈效應或暈輪效應人會將對一個人事物的單一特性的感覺轉嫁到其他沒有相關的屬性上，然後做出偏頗的判斷(偏見)。“你長得好看，說什么都對?！盋heerleader effectThe tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than

56、in isolation.啦啦隊效應一群長得很好看的人，分開來看都沒這麼好看。集體照中的個人比個人照好看。Positivity effectWhen considering people we like (including ourselves), we tend to make situational attributions about their negative behaviors and正面效應評價喜歡的人的行為時，把他們做好事歸因于內在本質，而把他們做壞事歸因于環(huán)境因dispositional attributions about their positive behaviors. The reverse may be true for people we do not like.素。評價不喜歡的人的行為 時，把他們做好事歸因于環(huán)境因素，而把他們做壞事歸因于內在本質。Not invented here Aversio