提綱重點(diǎn)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)提綱

1、小注一下1 這是 04 級(jí)團(tuán)總支學(xué)術(shù)部成員在大一學(xué)習(xí)學(xué)原理的過程中自行總結(jié)歸納的一份材料，重難點(diǎn)都只是 當(dāng)時(shí)的個(gè)人取舍，不一定是 test point。2 圖對(duì)于學(xué)習(xí)是極其重要的，但是由于作者不擅電腦繪圖，這里沒有配圖，希望大家要多多動(dòng)手畫圖哦！3 文中提到的“英文 Pxx”指英文版頁碼，“中文”指中文版?！靶戮帯敝赣墒园?，主編，的微觀學(xué)新編，是作者在學(xué)習(xí)微觀時(shí)使用的參考書。個(gè)人覺得挺好4 由于作者水平有限，時(shí)間倉促，難免有錯(cuò)誤和漏洞，希望大家可以多多指教：）有任何意見和建議，或者在學(xué)習(xí)方面有任何問題和需要，都?xì)g迎發(fā)郵件到學(xué)術(shù)部郵箱 xue或作者個(gè)人郵箱 ez最后，希望大家，更可以直接學(xué)得開

2、心。_。任何一位團(tuán)總支學(xué)術(shù)部成員！Chapter3 basic elements of supply and demandTheory of supply and demandShows how consumer preferences determine consumer demand for commodities, while business costs are the foundation of the supply of commodities.Competitive equilibriumThe demand curves and the supply curves inters

3、ectthe forces of demand and supply are just in balance.DEMANDThe demand schedule (the demand curve)The relationship between price and quantity bought.Demand curveThe graphical representation of the demand scheduleLaw of downward-sloping demand 需求向下傾斜規(guī)律When the price of a commodity is raised (and oth

4、er things are held constant), buyers tend to buy less of the commodity.Substitution effectWhen the price of a good rises, people will substitute other similar goods for it.e effectWhen a price goes up, people find themselves somewhat poorer than they were before. They havein effect less reale.Market

5、 demandRepresents the sum total of all individual demandsA array of factors that influences how much will be demanded at a given pricedetermines themarket demand:1. Objective elements:1.1 Average levels ofe: people tend to buy more of almost everything when theiresrise, even if prices dont change.1.

6、2 Size of the market: measured by population, 10 people tend to buy more than 1 people.1.3 The prices and availability of related goods: demand for oil tends to be low if the price of natural gas is low. (substitute product)2. Subjective elements:2.1 Tastes2.2 Preferences3. Special influences: the d

7、emand for umbrellas is high in rainy city but low in sunny city.Expectations about future economic conditions, particularly pricesSUPPLYThe supply schedule (or supply curve) for a commodityShows the relationship between its market price and the amount of that commodity that producers are willing to

8、produce and sell, other things held constant.Elements that affect the supply curve:1. Cost of productionOne major element underlying the supply curve, which is primarily determined by the prices of inputs and technological advances2. The prices of related goods3. Government policy4. Special influenc

9、es (weather influences farming.Shifts in supplyl When price of a good changes, producers change their production and quantity suppliedmove along the curve, but the supply and the supply curve do not shift.l When other influences affecting supply change, supply changes and the supply curves shifts. S

10、upply increases (or decreases) when the amount supplied increases (or decreases) at each marketprice.EQUILIBRIUM OF SUPPLY AND DEMANDMarket equilibriumComes at that price and quantity where the forces of supply and demand are in balance. The equilibrium price is also called the market-clearing price

11、(市場(chǎng)出清價(jià)格)There are no shortages or surpluses at the equilibrium price.What the market mechanism What goods are produced?For whom are goods produced?plishesrationing by prices (rationing by the purse)How to produce?WORDSIndividual commodities 單個(gè)商品Market mechanism 市場(chǎng)機(jī)制PART TWOMICROECONOMICS:SUPPLY, DEM

12、AND, AND PRODUCT MARKETSChapter4 applications of supply and demandELASTICITY OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY§1. Price elasticity of demand (price elasticity)Measures how much the quantity demanded of a good changes when its price changes. The percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentag

13、e change in price*factor3: the length of time that people have respond to price changesPlus:4.占消費(fèi)者收入比重小的商品需求價(jià)格彈性??；占比的商品需求價(jià)格彈性大。5. 數(shù)量越大，價(jià)格越低的商品價(jià)格彈性??；數(shù)量越小，價(jià)格越高的商品價(jià)格彈性大。Calculating elasticities Price elasticity of demand =ED=percentage change in quantity demanded/percentage change in pricel Price-elast

14、ic demand:A 1 percent change in price calls forth more than a 1 percent change in quantity demanded.l Price-inelastic demandA 1 percent change in price evokes less than a 1 percent change in quantity demanded.l Unit-elastic demandThe percentage change in quantity is exactly the same as the percentag

15、e change in price.This condition implies that total expenditures on the commodity (equal P*Q) stay the same even when the price changes.Three key steps to calculate (*1)l 計(jì)算需求曲線的價(jià)格彈性：直線上任何一點(diǎn)的彈性等于位于該點(diǎn)之下的線段長(zhǎng)度與位于該點(diǎn)之上的線段長(zhǎng)度的比值。Polar extremesthe price elasticities are infinite or zerocompletely elastic an

16、d completelyElasticityFactor 1Factor 2Factor 3ElasticLuxuriesHave substitutesHave more time to adjustInelasticNecessitiesHave no substitutesHave less time to adjustinelasticl Completely inelastic demand (with zero elasticity): the quantity demanded responds not at all to price changes. (Vertical dem

17、and curve)需求量不隨價(jià)格而變動(dòng)l Infinitely elastic demand: a tiny change in price will lead to an indefinitely large change in quantity demanded. (Horizontal demand curve)價(jià)格一定，需求量可以是無限的Warning: elasticity is not the same as slope. (*2)一般來說，在任何直線的中點(diǎn) M 的上方，需求富有彈性，ED>1；中點(diǎn)處，需求具有性 ED1；中點(diǎn)以下，需求缺乏彈性 ED<1。彈Elast

18、icity and revenueTotal revenue: price times quantitylllWhen demand is price-inelastic a price decrease deduces total revenue. When demand is price-elastic, a price decease increases total revenue.In the borderline case of unit-elastic demand, a price decrease leads to no change inrevenue.total§

19、2. Price elasticity of supplyThe responsiveness of the quantity supplied of a good to its market priceThe percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in priceFactors that determine supply elasticity:1. The ease with which production in the industry can be increased 行業(yè)中增加生

20、產(chǎn)的Whether all the inputs can be readily found at going market prices 紡織行業(yè)，價(jià)格的微小上升就會(huì)導(dǎo)致產(chǎn)出大幅度增加 Whether the production capacity is severely limited南非金礦開采，即使黃金價(jià)格急劇上升，產(chǎn)量也只能增加少許2. The time period under consideration 供給者做出反應(yīng)時(shí)間的長(zhǎng)短程度給定的價(jià)格變動(dòng)會(huì)對(duì)供給量產(chǎn)生較大的影響。價(jià)格上升后的短暫時(shí)期內(nèi)，企業(yè)也許無法增加其勞動(dòng)、物資和投入，因此供給可能缺乏彈性；隨著時(shí)間推移，企業(yè)可以雇傭工人

21、，建造新的廠房和擴(kuò)大生產(chǎn)能力供給彈性變大。APPLICATIONS TO CURRENT ECONOMIC ISSUESLong-run relative decline of farming 農(nóng)業(yè)的長(zhǎng)期相對(duì)Sharp increases in supply outpaced modest increases in demand, producing a downward trend in farm prices relative to other prices in the economy.Many governments attempt to help farmers by reducin

22、g their production.Production restrictions (限制生產(chǎn)) are typical of government market interferences that raise the es of one group at the expense of others.l This kind of policy is inefficient: the gain to farmers is actually less than the harm toconsumers.Incidence (歸宿)The ultimate economic impact or

23、burden of a tax (稅賦的最終影響)Who bears the true burden of a tax?general rules on tax shifting (稅收轉(zhuǎn)嫁的一般原理)The incidence of a tax is determined by the effect on prices and quantities in supply-and-demand equilibrium.In general, the burden or incidence depends upon the relative elasticities of demand and s

24、upply. A tax is shifted forward to consumers if the demand is inelastic relative to supply.A tax is shifted backward to producers if supply is relatively more inelastic than demand.的需求相對(duì)于供給缺乏彈性，則賦稅的負(fù)擔(dān)大部分轉(zhuǎn)嫁給了消費(fèi)者。土地的供給相對(duì)于需求缺乏彈性，則稅賦大部分轉(zhuǎn)嫁給了供給者。注：的例子需求曲線沒有移動(dòng)，因?yàn)槎愒黾雍笤诿恳粋€(gè)零售價(jià)格水平上，需求量并沒有變化。供給曲線向上移動(dòng)，因?yàn)橹挥挟?dāng)生產(chǎn)者得到

25、與以前相等的凈價(jià)格（the same net price），他們才會(huì)愿意出售某個(gè)數(shù)量。在每一供給量上，市場(chǎng)價(jià)格上升的幅度必須正好等于稅額。Subsidies (補(bǔ)貼)Taxes are used to discourage consumption of a commodity-gasoline. Subsidies are used to encourage production-agriculture.Governments occasionally interfere with the workings of competitive markets by setting um ceilin

26、gs or minimum floors on prices. In such situations, quantity supplied need nolonger equal quantity demanded.Ceilings lead to excess demand ( price controls produce shortages in the case of gasoline. Floors lead to excess supply.The interference may raise thees of a particular group (farmers or low-s

27、killed workers), butoften distortions and inefficiencies results. Waste, inefficiency, and aggravation(短缺) are certaincompanions of such interferences.WORDSProduct markets市場(chǎng)Chapter 5 demand and consumer behaviorl Economics relies on the fundamental premise that people tend to choose those goods ands

28、ervices they value most highly.UtilityDenotes satisfaction, refers to how consumers rank different goods and servicesl In the theory of demand, we say that peopleize their utility, which means that theychoose the bundle of consumption goods that they most prefer.Marginal utilityDenotes the additiona

29、l utility arising from consumption of an additional unit of a commodity消費(fèi)新增一商品時(shí)所帶來的新增的效用Law of diminishing marginal utilityStates that the amount of extra or marginal utility declines as a a goodconsumes more and more of是“尤”( utils )效用的邊際效用曲線必然向下傾斜；總效用曲線必然為反 U 形。總效用是從開始處累計(jì)起來的所有邊際效用之和。圖：邊際效用曲線之下的總面積等

30、于消費(fèi)數(shù)相同的總效用曲線的高度。Equimarginal principle: equal marginal utilities per dollar for every goodEquimarginal principle 等邊際準(zhǔn)則:The fundamental condition ofum satisfaction or utilityThe fundamental condition of consumer equilibrium 消費(fèi)者均衡的基本條件It states that a consumer having a fixede and facing given market p

31、rices of goods willachieveum satisfaction or utility when the marginal utility of the last dollar spent oneach good is exactly the same as the marginal utility of the last dollar spent on any othergood. 花費(fèi)在任何一種物品上的最后一所得到的邊際效用正好等于花費(fèi)在其他任何一種物品上的最后一所得到的邊際效用時(shí)，該消費(fèi)者得到最大的滿足或效用。Marginal utility ofe 收入的邊際效用:T

32、he common marginal utility per dollar of all commodities in consumer equilibrium消費(fèi)者均衡時(shí)，各種物品每一的一般邊際效用MUgood1/P1 = MUgood2/P2 = = MU per $ ofel Why demand curves slope downward?Suppose the common marginal utility per dollar ofe constant, then increase the price ofgood 1. With no change in quantity con

33、sumed, the first ratio will be below that of all other goods. The consumer will therefore have to readjust the consumption of good 1.The consumer will do this by:(a)(b)(c)lowering the consumption of good 1, thereby raising the MU of good 1, untilat the new, reduced level of consumption of good 1, th

34、e new marginal utility per dollar spenton good 1 is again equal to the MU per dollar spent on other goods.Therefore, a higher price for a good reduces the consumers desired consumption of thatcommodity. Thats why demand curves slope downward.SUBSTITUTION EFFECT ANDE EFFECTSubstitution effectWhen the

35、 price of a good rises, consumers will tend to substitute other goods for the more expensive good in order to satisfy their desires more inexpensively.e effectDenotes the impact of a price change on a goods quantity demanded that results from the effect ofthe price change on consumers realesl 當(dāng)價(jià)格上升并

36、且貨幣收入固定不變時(shí)，消費(fèi)者的實(shí)際收入下降。他們很可能減少幾乎所有物品（包括價(jià)格上升的物品）的曲線更向下傾斜。數(shù)量。收入效應(yīng)常常會(huì)強(qiáng)化替代效應(yīng)，使得需求l 商品 x 價(jià)格下降，替代效應(yīng)使商品 x 的需求量上升，收入效應(yīng)卻有兩種可能：一、商品 x 價(jià)格下降，收入效應(yīng)使 x 的需求量上升，則 x 的需求量收入彈性為正值，x是正常商品。二、商品 x 價(jià)格下降，收入效應(yīng)使 x 的需求量下降，則 x 的需求量收入彈性為負(fù)值，x是低劣商品。三、商品 x 價(jià)格下降，收入效應(yīng)不但使 x 的需求量下降，而且其下降幅度要大于替代效應(yīng)帶來的需求量上升，則 x 為商品。商品的需求量與價(jià)格成正向關(guān)系。19 世紀(jì)中葉的愛

37、爾蘭，土豆價(jià)格上升時(shí)需求量反而上升。因?yàn)閻蹱柼m人的主食是面包、土豆和肉，土豆的在窮人的消費(fèi)中占有很大比重。土豆價(jià)格上升，意味著窮人的實(shí)際收入下降，使之無力再去昂貴的肉類食品，為了生存只得的土豆。商品是低劣商品，低劣商品未必是* 新編 P55 P56 圖 312圖 313商品。Demand shifts收入的上升會(huì)增們所愿意的大多數(shù)物品的數(shù)量。對(duì)于，必需品做出的反應(yīng)量隨收入的增加而下降。程度小于大多數(shù)物品，奢侈品做出的反應(yīng)較大。低劣品的物品自身價(jià)格變動(dòng)，沿需求曲線移動(dòng)；除自身價(jià)格以外的條件變動(dòng)，需求曲線向左方（左下方）或右方（右下方）移動(dòng)。Substitutes and complements

38、SubstitutesGoods A and B are substitutes if an increase in the price of good A will increase the demand for substitute good B. （beef and chicken）ComplementsGoods A and B are complements when an increase in the price of good A causes a decrease in the demand for its complementary good B. (cars and ga

39、soline)Independent goodsOne good has no effect on the demand for the other. (Beef and textbooks)e elasticity 收入彈性:Denotes the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in holding other things, such as prices, constante,Highe elasticities: 空中旅行，游艇。Lowe elasticities:，香煙。收

40、入效應(yīng)和替代效應(yīng)共同決定了各種商品的需求曲線的價(jià)格彈性。Empirical estimates of price ande elasticities （需求）價(jià)格彈性和收入彈性的經(jīng)驗(yàn)估算Price elasticity:High ready substitutes are availableLow essential to daily life and no close substitutese elasticity: High luxuriesNegative inferior goods 低檔品Proportionally staple commodities 日常用品Addictive

41、substance:The desire to consume depends significantly on past consumptionl Economically, prohibition can be interpreted as a sharp upward shift in the supply curve.供給曲線向上移動(dòng)之后，上癮物品的價(jià)格會(huì)提高很多。Raising the prices of harmful addictive substances can reduce the number of casual users who will be attracted i

42、nto the market.Prohibition of addictive substances can promotes crime, destroys inner cities, spreads AIDS, corrupts law enforcement officials and politicians, produces and exacerbates poverty, and erodesthe moral fabric of society, or drive users to other harmful substances.The paradox of value 價(jià)值悖

43、論How is it that water, which is essential to life, has little value, while diamonds, which are generally used for conspicuous consumption, command and exalted price?Waters price is determined by its marginal utility, by the usefulness of the last glass of water,CommodityPrice elasticitycommoditye el

44、asticityTomatoes4.60Automobiles2.50Green peas2.80Owner-occupied housing1.50Legal gambling1.90Furniture1.50Taxi service1.20Books1.40Furniture1.00Restaurant meals1.00Movies0.87Clothing1.00Shoes0.70Physicians service0.75Legal service0.61Tobacco0.64Medical insurance0.31Eggs0.37Bus travel0.20Pig products

45、-0.20Residential electricity0.13Flour-0.36which sells for very little because there is so much water.The more there is of a commodity, the less is the relative desirability of its last little unit. It is the large quantities that pull the marginal utilities so far down and thus reduce the prices of

46、these vitalcommodities.Consumer surplus 消費(fèi)者剩余The paradox of value emphasizes that the recorded money value of a good (貨幣價(jià)值) (measured by price times quantity) may be very misleading as an indicator of the total economic value of that good.Consumer surplus:The gap between the total utility of a good

47、and its total market valuel the law of diminishing marginal utility & we pay for each unit what the last unit is worth we receive more than we pay for surplus arises消費(fèi)者剩余運(yùn)用于整個(gè)市場(chǎng)：價(jià)格線之上的市場(chǎng)需求曲線的面積代表了消費(fèi)者剩余的總量有助于衡量公共品帶來的利益以及和進(jìn)口關(guān)稅造成的損失cost-benefit analysis 成本效益分析Attempts to determine the costs and ben

48、efits of a government program - A free road should be built if its total consumer surplus exceeds its costs.APPENDIX 5 GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF CONSUMER EQUILIBRIUM消費(fèi)者均衡的幾何分析The indifference curve 無差異曲線The points on which represent consumption bundles among which the consumer is indifferentLaw of sub

49、stitutionThe scarcer a good, the greater its relative substitution value; its marginal utility rises relative tothe marginal utility of the good that hase plentiful一種物品越是稀缺，它的相對(duì)替代價(jià)值就越大；相對(duì)于變得充裕的那些物品而言，它的邊際效用會(huì)上升。因此無差異曲線凸向原點(diǎn)。沿曲線向下向右移動(dòng)，曲線會(huì)變得平坦。曲線上兩點(diǎn)連線的斜率絕對(duì)值為兩種物品之間的替代率（邊際替代率）substitution ratios(marginal

50、rates of substitution) 在曲線上移動(dòng)的距離越短，替代率就越接近無差異曲線的實(shí)際斜率。The slope of the indifference curve is the measure of the goods relative marginal utilities, or ofthe substitution terms on whichfor very small changesthe consumer would be willing to exchange a little less of one good in return for a little more

51、of the other.(無差異曲線的斜率是兩種物品的相對(duì)邊際效用的度量，或者說是兩種物品的替代條件的度量，即對(duì)于很小的變化，消費(fèi)者愿意按該條件用一種物品的少量減少來換取另一種物品的少量增加。)budget line or budget constraint 預(yù)算線或預(yù)算約束表示在給定價(jià)格下，消費(fèi)者正好花費(fèi)收入的兩種物品的各種可能組合的直線the equilibrium position of tangency 切點(diǎn)的均衡位置The consumer is at equilibrium where the slope of the budget line is equal to the sl

52、ope of the indifference curve - the ratio of food to clothing prices is equal to the ratio of the marginal utilities of the two goodsThe ratio of prices is equal to the ratio of marginal utilities - the consumer is getting the same marginal utility from the last penny spent on food as from the last

53、penny spent on clothing.Equilibrium condition:PF/PC = substitution ratio = MUF/MUCl 一種物品價(jià)格變化時(shí)各個(gè)均衡點(diǎn)的連線為價(jià)格消費(fèi)曲線（PCC），可知商品的需求量隨價(jià)格下降而上升。用圖形表示這種關(guān)系，就是負(fù)斜率的需求曲線。新編 P53 中文 P79l 較高的食品價(jià)格一定會(huì)減少食品的消費(fèi)，但衣服的消費(fèi)可能上升或下降。新編 P55 P56 圖 312圖 313WordsOrdinal utility 序數(shù)效用只考慮商品組合的偏好順序：A 是否比 B 值得偏好。Equimarginal principle 等邊際準(zhǔn)則M

54、erit goods 益品Demerit goods 害品Addictive substance 上癮物品The indifference map 無差異曲線圖Chapter 6 production and business organizationTHEORY OF PRODUCTION AND MARGINAL PRODUCTSThe production functionThe relationship between the amount of input required and the amount of output that can be obtainedSpecifies

55、theum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputsTotal productDesignates the total amount of output producedMarginal product (of an input) 邊際產(chǎn)量The extra product or output added by 1 extra unit of that input while other inputs are held constantAverage productEquals total output divide

56、d by total units of inputLaw of diminishing returns 邊際遞減規(guī)律The marginal product of each unit of input will decline as the amount of that input increases, holding all other inputs constant邊際遞減表現(xiàn)為一個(gè)凸型的或圓頂型的總產(chǎn)量曲線Returns to scale 規(guī)模Reflect the responsiveness of total product when all the inputs are increased proportionatelyl constant returns to scale:A change in all inputs leads to a proportional change in output 如手工業(yè)l increasing returns to scaleAn increase in all inputs leads to a more-than-