中世紀(jì)文學(xué)與藝術(shù)

1、An Introduction to Literature and Arts in Middle Ages (Handout 9October, 2010Part I. ArchitectureSection A Romanesque ArchitectureThe specific character of the Romanesque style can be understood only in the light of the development of early medieval architecture in the West, notably its Carolingian

2、and Ottonian phases. Certain of the most characteristic features of Romanesque structuresthe massive west facade crowned by a tower or by twin towers, the complex design of the eastern part housing the sanctuary, the rhythmic alternation of piers and columns in the naverepresent only the advanced st

3、ages in a lengthy and complex formal evolution marked by considerable trial and error.The development of Romanesque architecture owes much to the primacy accorded to vaulting. Masonry vaulting (see vault since the beginning of Christian architecture had been confined to buildings of relatively small

4、 scale and to crypts. Large basilican structures, in a continuation of a tradition inaugurated by the early Christian basilica, were topped by wooden roofs. Romanesque churches, on the other hand, with notable exceptions in Normandy and Italy, sustained massive barrel vaults, making mandatory the re

5、inforcement of load-bearing walls in order to parry the lateral outward thrust. The frequent presence of galleries above the aisles, sometimes with half-barrel vaults, is in all probability rooted in structural considerations connected with the problem of abutment. The limitation of wall openings to

6、 a minimum, related to the same concern, contributed to the sober yet somberly impressive character of the light.The major share of architectural activity was sponsored by the great monastic communities. The Cluniac order, at the peak of its power, played a primary role in the patronage of construct

7、ion. Thus a number of significant Cluniac churches connected with great 12th-century pilgrimagesSt. Martin in Tours, St. Sernin in Toulouse, and Santiago de Compostela in Spainshow great similarity in plan and overall design. This sameness is especially notable in the presence of spacious ambulatori

8、es with radiating chapels designed to facilitate the pilgrims' access to the precious relics. The design of the third church of Cluny, dedicated in 1095, is reflected in a number of Burgundian churches. The basilica of San Marco in Venice and other Byzantine structures help to account for the pr

9、esence of domed vaulting in a group of churches in French Aquitaine. German Romanesque architecture on the other hand remained strongly tied to the heritage of Ottonian art.The following structures are noted works of Romanesque architecture: Francethe abbey churches of St. Madeleine Vézelay (c.

10、10901130 and Paray-le-Monial (early 12th cent.; Germanythe Cathedral of Speyer, dedicated in 1060, but largely reconstructed after 1082, and the Church of St. Mary on the Capitol in Cologne (1049; Italythe cathedral (106392 and baptistery (1153 in Pisa, the Church of San Miniato al Monte (c.1070 in

11、Florence, and the Cathedral of Monreale in Sicily (1174. From the last third of the 12th century certain features of the churches in N France and in England began to point toward the development of the Gothic (see Norman architecture. Similarly, architecture in the Ile-de-France, particularly the am

12、bulatory (1140 of the abbey of St. Denis, reveals such an advance in unified design and construction as to be considered the first monument of Gothic architecture.Section B Gothic ArchitectureGothic Art is concerned with the painting, sculpture, architecture, and music characteristic of the second o

13、f two great international eras that flourished in western and central Europe during the Middle AgesGothic art evolved from Romanesque art and lasted from the mid-12th century to as late as the end of the 16th century in some areas. The term Gothic was coined by classicizing Italian writers of the Re

14、naissance, who attributed the invention (and what to them was the non-classical ugliness of medieval architecture to the barbarian Gothic tribes that had destroyed the Roman Empire and its classical culture in the 5th century Ad. The term retained its derogatory overtones until the 19th century, at

15、which time a positive critical revaluation of Gothic architecture took place. Although modern scholars have long realized that Gothic art has nothing in truth to do with the Goths, the term Gothic remains a standard one in the study of art history. Architecture was the most important and original ar

16、t form during the Gothic period. The principal structural characteristics of Gothic architecture arose out of medieval masons' efforts to solve the problems associated with supporting heavy masonry ceiling vaults over wide spans. The problem was that the heavy stonework of the traditional arched

17、 barrel vault and the groin vault exerted a tremendous downward and outward pressure that tended to push the walls upon which the vault rested outward, thus collapsing them. A building's vertical supporting walls thus had to be made extremely thick and heavy in order to contain the barrel vault&

18、#39;s outward thrust. Medieval masons solved this difficult problem about 1120 with a number of brilliant innovations. First and foremost they developed a ribbed vault, in which arching and intersecting stone ribs support a vaulted ceiling surface that is composed of mere thin stone panels. This gre

19、atly reduced the weight (and thus the outward thrust of the ceiling vault, and since the vault's weight was now carried at discrete points (the ribs rather than along a continuous wall edge, separate widely spaced vertical piers to support the ribs could replace the continuous thick walls. The r

20、ound arches of the barrel vault were replaced by pointed (Gothic arches which distributed thrust in more directions downward from the topmost point of the arch. Since the combination of ribs and piers relieved the intervening vertical wall spaces of their supportive function, these walls could be bu

21、ilt thinner and could even be opened up with large windows or other glazing. A crucial point was that the outward thrust of the ribbed ceiling vaults was carried across the outside walls of the nave, first to an attached outer buttress and then to a freestanding pier by means of a half arch known as

22、 a flying buttress. The flying buttress leaned against the upper exterior of the nave (thus counteracting the vault's outward thrust, crossed over the low side aisles of the nave, and terminated in the freestanding buttress pier, which ultimately absorbed the ceiling vault's thrust. These el

23、ements enabled Gothic masons to build much larger and taller buildings than their Romanesque predecessors and to give their structures more complicated ground plans. The skillful use of flying buttresses made it possible to build extremely tall, thin-walled buildings whose interior structural system

24、 of columnar piers and ribs reinforced an impression of soaring verticality.Throughout this period, the central corridor of Europe running northwest from Lombardy to England, between Cologne and Paris, retains an exceptional importance. Much of the significant art-especially architecture-was produce

25、d within this geographic area, because it appears to have been an extraordinarily wealthy area, with enough funds to attract good artists and to pay for expensive materials and buildings. Paris -for much of this period the home of a powerful and artistically enlightened court-played an especially im

26、portant role in the history of Gothic art.(From Professor Andrew H. R. Martindale of University of East Anglia, EnglandSection C Vocabulary List1. Romanesque architecture：羅馬式（拉丁式）建筑。 2. Carolingian: 加洛林王朝風(fēng)格；法蘭克王國(guó)的第二個(gè)王朝。3. sanctuary: 圣所，圣地，如教堂，廟宇，回教寺院。4. nave: long central part of the church where th

27、e congregation sits; 中堂，教堂的正廳。5. vault: arched roof; series of arches forming a roof; 拱券，拱頂。6. masonry vaulting: 石頭建造的拱形結(jié)構(gòu)。7. crypt: room beneath the floor of the church;（教堂）的地下室。8. basillica: 古羅馬的長(zhǎng)方形會(huì)堂，長(zhǎng)方形教堂。9. barrel vault: 半圓型的拱頂。10. lateral outward thrust: 側(cè)面向外的推力。11. abutment：structure that bea

28、rs the weight of a bridge or an arch; 橋臺(tái)，拱臺(tái)，用以支撐橋或拱的結(jié)構(gòu)。12. St. Martin in Tours: 法國(guó)中西部圖爾市的圣馬丁教堂。13. St. Sermin in Toulouse: 法國(guó)南部圖盧滋市的圣塞曼教堂。14. Burgundian churches: 法國(guó)東部勃艮第地區(qū)的教堂。15. the basilica of San Marco威尼斯的圣馬可教堂,其形狀為典型的長(zhǎng)方型結(jié)構(gòu)。16. baptistery in Pisa: 比薩的洗禮堂。17. the abbey of St. Denis: 巴黎附近的圣丹尼斯修道院。

29、18. the Goths: 哥特人，公元五世紀(jì)推翻羅馬帝國(guó)的野蠻人。19. arched barrel vault: 半圓的拱型結(jié)構(gòu)。20. groin;: (architecture curved edge where two arches supporting a roof meet; 穹棱；穹窿交接線。21. rib: curved part of a structure of something resembling a rib; 類似肋骨的結(jié)構(gòu)。 22. the ribbed vault: 有肋骨結(jié)構(gòu)的拱頂。23. the pointed (Gothic arches:（哥特式）尖

30、頂。24. piers: wall between two windows or other openings; 窗間壁；扶壁。25. a half arch: 半拱。26. buttress: thing or person that supports or reinforce sth. or protects against sth; 支撐物，支柱。27. a flying buttress：(architecture arched structure that supports the outside wall of a large building, especially a chur

31、ch; 拱扶垛。Part II LiteratureSection A The significance of The Divine Comedy in literature history神曲的寫作開始于但丁放逐初年（大約在1307）年，他逝世前不久才完成。政治上的挫折和個(gè)人的不幸遭遇使但丁感到在生活中迷失了方向。放逐期間他看到了意大利和整個(gè)歐洲處于分爭(zhēng)和混亂的狀態(tài)，因而對(duì)祖國(guó)和人類的命運(yùn)懷著深切的憂郁。但他并不悲觀，堅(jiān)信在不久的將來(lái)會(huì)有實(shí)現(xiàn)和平與統(tǒng)一的人出現(xiàn)。他意識(shí)到自己擔(dān)負(fù)著揭露現(xiàn)實(shí)，喚醒人心，給意大利人民指出政治上，道德上復(fù)興道路的歷史使命。 寫作神曲的動(dòng)機(jī)正在于此。神曲的故事采取了中

32、古夢(mèng)幻文學(xué)的形式。詩(shī)歌中敘述但丁在森林中迷了路，出了森林，忽然被三只野獸（豹，獅，狼）擋住去路。正危機(jī)時(shí)，羅馬詩(shī)人維吉爾出現(xiàn)了；他受貝雅特立齊的囑托來(lái)救但丁，引導(dǎo)他游歷了地獄和煉獄，接著貝雅特立齊又引導(dǎo)他游歷了天國(guó)。游歷的過(guò)程構(gòu)成了地獄， 煉獄，和 天國(guó)三部曲。每部有三十三歌，連同作為全書序曲的第一歌共一百首歌。這種勻稱的結(jié)構(gòu)是建立在中古關(guān)于數(shù)字的神秘意義和象征的概念上，并不是從作品本身內(nèi)在的必要性而產(chǎn)生的。和許多中古文學(xué)作品一樣，全書的情節(jié)充滿了寓意，在解釋上引起了很多爭(zhēng)論。但是，貫穿于作品中的主題思想是相當(dāng)明確的：在新舊交替的時(shí)代，個(gè)人和人類怎樣從迷惘和錯(cuò)誤中經(jīng)過(guò)苦難和考驗(yàn)，到達(dá)真理和至善

33、的境地。維吉爾象征理性和哲學(xué)，他引導(dǎo)但丁游歷地獄和煉獄，象征個(gè)人和人類在哲學(xué)的指導(dǎo)下，憑借理性認(rèn)識(shí)罪惡和錯(cuò)誤，從而悔過(guò)自新的過(guò)程。貝雅特立齊象征信仰和神學(xué)，她接替維吉爾作向?qū)?，引?dǎo)但丁游歷天國(guó)，象征個(gè)人和人類通過(guò)信仰的途徑，神學(xué)的啟發(fā)，認(rèn)識(shí)最高真理和達(dá)到至善的過(guò)程；這種境界，依靠理性和哲學(xué)是無(wú)法達(dá)到的。認(rèn)為信仰和神學(xué)高于理性和哲學(xué)，這是但丁作為中古詩(shī)人的偏見(jiàn)，他所認(rèn)識(shí)的真理和至善，顯然還局限在基督教神學(xué)的觀點(diǎn)里。但是，但丁追求最高真理的精神和關(guān)懷人類命運(yùn)的熱情，在中古時(shí)期來(lái)說(shuō)，還是有進(jìn)步意義的。神曲的進(jìn)步意義主要在于它揭露了當(dāng)時(shí)的現(xiàn)實(shí)，如教會(huì)的貪婪腐化，封建統(tǒng)治者的殘暴專橫，以及市民的貪財(cái)好利

34、。其中尤其對(duì)教會(huì)的批評(píng)最為尖銳。但丁雖然是正統(tǒng)的天主教徒，但他對(duì)教會(huì)的批評(píng)在客觀上卻是和異端運(yùn)動(dòng)中人民反教會(huì)的情緒是一致的。詩(shī)歌忠實(shí)地描繪了佛羅倫薩從封建關(guān)系向資本主義關(guān)系過(guò)渡時(shí)期的社會(huì)和政治變化；但他又把封建宗法時(shí)代的佛羅倫薩美化為一個(gè)平靜淳樸的牧歌似的社會(huì)，來(lái)和動(dòng)蕩的現(xiàn)實(shí)社會(huì)對(duì)比。神曲中塑造的人物，性格鮮明，形成一座豐富多姿的人物形象畫廊。作為神曲的主人公，詩(shī)人自己的性格和精神面貌描繪的最為細(xì)致入微。但丁常常（特別是在地獄篇里）通過(guò)人物在戲劇性場(chǎng)面的行動(dòng)和對(duì)行動(dòng)動(dòng)機(jī)的挖掘來(lái)刻畫性格。他勾勒人物形象的特征，有時(shí)僅用寥寥數(shù)語(yǔ)。例如，“他挺胸翹首昂然直立，似乎對(duì)地獄懷著極大的輕蔑，”這兩行詩(shī)就使

35、法利那塔的英雄氣概呈現(xiàn)在我們眼前。神曲對(duì)于地獄，煉獄，天國(guó)的描寫不象中古時(shí)期一般的文學(xué)作品那樣模糊混亂，而是構(gòu)思明確，想象豐富。詩(shī)人幻想地獄在北半球，是一個(gè)巨大無(wú)比的深淵，從地面通到地心，形狀象圓形劇場(chǎng)；煉獄是一座雄偉的高山，矗立在南半球的海洋中，山頂是地上的樂(lè)園；天國(guó)由托勒密天文系里的九重天和超越時(shí)間和空間的凈火天（既嚴(yán)格意義上的天國(guó)）構(gòu)成，這九重天環(huán)繞著大地旋轉(zhuǎn)，凈火天則是永恒靜止的。三個(gè)境界細(xì)分為若干層，體現(xiàn)出作者根據(jù)哲學(xué)，神學(xué)觀點(diǎn)所要闡明的道德意義。三個(gè)境界的性質(zhì)不同，因而色調(diào)也各不相同。地獄是痛苦和絕望的境界，色調(diào)是陰暗或者濃淡不勻的；煉獄是寧?kù)o和希望的境界，色調(diào)是柔和和爽目的；天國(guó)

36、是喜悅的境界，色調(diào)是光輝耀眼的；在地獄篇中但丁以自然景象為陪襯，主要描繪人物受苦的場(chǎng)面，煉獄篇才直接描繪了自然景色，天國(guó)篇?jiǎng)t廣泛地利用自然界空靈的現(xiàn)象-光來(lái)表現(xiàn)精神喜悅的程度。這些境界的敘述都非常真實(shí)，是人如身歷其境。對(duì)自然的描寫也往往富有高度的畫意，可見(jiàn)但丁對(duì)自然之美麗極為敏感。這一點(diǎn)也是但丁作為新時(shí)代詩(shī)人的重要特征。但丁在塑造人物形象和描寫情景時(shí)，善于使用來(lái)源于現(xiàn)實(shí)生活和自然界的比喻。例如，形容鬼魂們注視但丁和維吉爾，好象老裁縫穿針時(shí)凝視著針眼一樣。形容兩隊(duì)魂靈相遇，彼此接吻致意，象螞蟻在路上覓食，彼此相遇時(shí)互相碰頭探詢消息的樣子。形容禁食的魂靈瘦得兩眼深陷無(wú)神，象寶石脫落的戒指。所寫的對(duì)

37、象越不平常，就越是用人們熟悉的事物來(lái)比喻。形容基督上升，光芒下射，照耀著圣者們，象日光從云縫透出，射在繁花如景的草坪上一樣。這些比喻使人物和情景鮮明突出，取得了造型藝術(shù)的效果。神曲的細(xì)節(jié)描寫雖有高度技巧，但它的主要成就還在于高度的概括和綜合。這部作品把詩(shī)人的內(nèi)心生活經(jīng)驗(yàn)、宗教熱情、愛(ài)國(guó)思想和政治文化方面的重大問(wèn)題，把歷史的和現(xiàn)實(shí)的、古典的和基督的因素融為一個(gè)和諧的整體。在這一點(diǎn)上，神曲的確是很成功的。（摘自歐洲文學(xué)史楊周翰，吳達(dá)元等編，人民文學(xué)出版社，一九七九年，北京）Canto I 第一首詩(shī) ( Inferno地獄篇Argument 概要The writer, having lost his

38、 way in a gloomy forest, and being hindered by certain wild beasts from ascending a mountain, is met by Virgil, who promises to show him the punishments of Hell, and afterward of Purgatory; and that he shall then be conducted by Beatrice into Paradise. He follows the Roman poet.森林In the midway1 of t

39、his our mortal life,I found me in a gloomy wood, astrayGone from the path direct: and e'en to tell,It were no easy task, how savage wildThat forest, how robust and rough its growth,Which to remember only, my dismayRenews, in bitterness not far from death.Yet, to discourse of what there good befe

40、l,All else will I relate discover'd there.How first I enter'd it I scarce can say,Such sleepy dulness in that instant weigh'dMy senses down, when the true path I left;陽(yáng)光照耀下的山丘B(yǎng)ut when a mountain's foot I reach'd, where closedThe valley that had pierced my heart with dread,I look&

41、#39;d aloft, and saw his shoulders broadAlready vested with that planet's beam,2Who leads all wanderers safe through every way.Then was a little respite to the fear,That in my heart's recesses deep had lainAll of that night, so pitifully past:And as a man, with difficult short breath,Forespe

42、nt with toiling, 'scaped from sea to shore,Turns to the perilous wide waste, and standsA gaze; e'en so my spirit, that yet fail'd,Struggling with terror, turn'd to view the straitsThat none hath passed and lived. My weary frameAfter short pause recomforted, againI journey'd on ov

43、er that lonely steep,The hinder foot3 still firmer. Scarce the ascent三頭猛獸Began, when, lo! a panther,4 nimble, light,And cover'd with a speckled skin, appear'd;Nor, when it saw me, vanish'd; rather stroveTo check my onward going; that oft - times,With purpose to retrace my steps, I turn&#

44、39;d.The hour was morning's prime, and on his wayAloft the sun ascended with those stars,5That with him rose when Love Divine first movedThose its fair works: so that with joyous hopeAll things conspired to fill me, the gay skinOf that swift animal, the matin dawn,And the sweet season. Soon that

45、 joy was chased.And by new dread succeeded, when in viewA lion came, 'gainst me as it appear'd,With his head held aloft and hunger - mad,That e'en the air was fear - struck. A she - wolfWas at his heels, who in her leanness seem'dFull of all wants, and many a land hath madeDisconsola

46、te ere now. She with such fearO'erwhelm'd me, at the sight of her appall'd,That of the height all hope I lost. As one,Who, with his gain elated, sees the timeWhen all unawares is gone, he inwardlyMourns with heart - griping anguish; such was I,Haunted by that fell beast, never at peace,W

47、ho coming o'er against me, by degreesImpell'd me where the sun in silence rests.While to the lower space with backward step維吉爾I fell, my ken discern'd the form of oneWhose voice seem'd faint through lond disuse of speech.When him in that great desert I espied,"Have mercy on me,&

48、quot; cried I out aloud,"Spirit! or living man! whate'er thou be."He answered: "Now not man, man once I was,And born of Lombard parents, Mantuans bothBy country, when the power of Julius yetWas scarcely firm. At Rome my life was past,Beneath the mild Augustus, in the timeOf fabled

49、 deities and false. A bardWas I, and made Anchises' upright sonThe subject of my song, who came from Troy,When the flames prey'd on Ilium's haughty towers.But thou, say wherefore to such perils pastReturn'st thou? wherefore not this pleasant mountAscendest, cause and source of all de

50、light?""And art thou then that Virgil, that well - spring,From which such copious floods of eloquenceHave issued?" I with front abash'd replied."Glory and light of all the tuneful train!May it avail me, that I long with zealHave sought thy volume, and with love immenseHave co

51、nn'd it o'er. My master thou, and guide!Thou he from whom alone I have derivedThat style, which for its beauty into fameExalts me. See the beast, from whom I fled.O save me from her, thou illustrious sage!For every vein and pulse throughout my frameShe hath made tremble." He, soon as he

52、 sawThat I was weeping, answer'd, "Thou must needsAnother way pursue, if thou wouldst 'scapeFrom out that savage wilderness. This beast,At whom thou criest, her way will suffer noneTo pass, and no less hinderance makes than death:So bad and so accursed in her kind,That never sated is he

53、r ravenous will,Still after food more craving than before.獵犬To many an animal in wedlock vileShe fastens, and shall yet to many more,Until that greyhound6 come, who shall destroyHer with sharp pain. He will not life supportBy earth nor its base metals, but by love,Wisdom, and virtue; and his land sh

54、all beThe land 'twixt either Feltro.7 In his mightShall safety to Italia's plains arise,For whose fair realm, Camilla, virgin pure,Nisus, Euryalus, and Turnus fell.He, with incessant chase, through every townShall worry, until he to hell at lengthRestore her, thence by envy first let loose.冥

55、界之行I, for thy profit pondering, now deviseThat thou mayst follow me; and I, thy guide,Will lead thee hence through an eternal space,Where thou shalt hear despairing shrieks, and seeSpirits of old tormented, who invokeA second death;8 and those next view, who dwellContent in fire,9 for that they hope

56、 to come,Whene'er the time may be, among the blest,Into whose regions if thou then desireTo ascend, a spirit worthier10 than IMust lead thee, in whose charge, when I depart,Thou shalt be left; for that Almighty King,Who reigns above, a rebel to His lawAdjudges me; and therefore hath decreedThat,

57、 to His city, none through me should come.He in all parts hath sway; there rules, there holdsHis citadel and throne. O happy those,Whom there He chuses!" I to him in few:"Bard! by that God, whom thou didst not adore,I do beseech thee (that this ill and worseI may escape to lead me where th

58、ou said'st,That I Saint Peter's gate11 may view, and thoseWho, as thou tell'st, are in such dismal plight."Onward he moved, I close his steps pursued.Notes:1. "In the midway." The era of the poem is intended by these words to be fixed to the thirty-fifth year of the poet&#

59、39;s age, A.D. 1300. In this Convito, human life is compared to an arch or bow, the highest point of which is, in those well framed by nature, at their thirty - fifth year.2. "That planet's beam." The sun.3. "The hinder foot." In ascending a hill the weight of the body rests on the hinder foot.4. "A panther." Pleasure or luxury.5. "With those stars." The sun was in Aries, in which sign he suppose