英語考研 胡壯麟版 語言學(xué)教程 第十章 語言與計(jì)算機(jī)

1、Chapter 10Language and the Computer11. CAI, CAL & CALLCAI: computer-assisted instructionCAL: computer-assisted learningCALL: computer-assisted language learningThree phases of CALL: Behavioristic CALLCommunicative CALLIntegrative CALL21.1 Behavioristic CALLConceived in the 1950s and implemented in t

2、he 1960s and 70s.Based on the then dominant behaviorist theories of learning-repetitive language drills (drill and practice).The courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor, a vehicle for delivering instructional materials to the student.3The rationaleRepeated exposure to the same material

3、 is beneficial or even essential to learning.A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback. A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allow

4、ing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities.4Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. The PLATO system: vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and

5、 translations tests at various intervals.5In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. First, behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the pedagogical level. Secondly, the introduction of the microco

6、mputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL. 61.2 Communicative CALLBased on the communicative approach to LT which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s.Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did

7、not allow enough authentic communication to be of much value.7Premises for Communicative CALLfocuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves; teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly; allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate

8、prefabricated language; does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells; 8avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses; uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in wh

9、ich using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.9Communicative CALL: Model 1Computer as “knower-of-the-right-answer”, an extension of the computer as tutor model. But the process of finding the right answer in

10、volves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction.Programs to provide skill practice, but in a non-drill format. Courseware for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games. 10Communicative CALL: Model 2Computer as stimulus. Purpose is not so much to have students discover t

11、he right answer, but rather to stimulate students discussion, writing, or critical thinking. Software used for these purposes include a wide variety of programs which may not have been specifically designed for language learners. 11Communicative CALL: Model 3Computer as tool or, as workhorse. The pr

12、ograms do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language. Examples include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-top publishing programs, and concordancers. 12By the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was

13、 still failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and thus “finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements” of the language teaching process.131.3 Integrative CALLMultimedia:

14、CD-ROM (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) hypermediaThe Internet: computer-mediated communication (CMC)14Hypermedia: advantagesa more authentic learning environment is created;skills are easily integrated;students have great control over their learning;it facilitates a principle focus on

15、the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies.15Hypermedia: disadvantagesQuality of available programs.Todays computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive.Multimedia technology as it currently exists thus only partially contrib

16、utes to integrative CALL.16The InternetLanguage learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other learners or speakers of the target language 24 hours a day, from school, work, or home. This communication can be asynchronous through tools such as electronic mail (e-mail),

17、 or it can be synchronous, using programs which allow people all around the world to have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their keyboards. It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also one-to-many.17CMC allows users to share not only brief messages, but also lengthy documents-t

18、hus facilitating collaborative writing-and also graphics, sounds, and video. Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials exactly tailored to their own personal interests. They can also use the

19、Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public. 181.4 ConclusionThe history of CALL suggests that the computer can serve a variety of uses for language teaching. It can be a tutor which offers language drills or skill practice; a stimulus

20、for discussion and interaction; or a tool for writing and research. With the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication and a source of limitless authentic materials.19As pointed out by Garrett (1991), “the use of the computer does not constitute a method”. Rather, it is

21、 a “medium in which a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented”. The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium itself but only in how it is put to use.20As with the audio language lab “revolution” of 40 years ago, those who expect to get magnificent res

22、ults simply from the purchase of expensive and elaborate systems will likely be disappointed. But those who put computer technology to use in the service of good pedagogy will undoubtedly find ways to enrich their educational program and the learning opportunities of their students.212. Machine Tran

23、slation (MT)A form of translation where a computer program analyses the text in one language the “source text” and then attempts to produce another, equivalent text in another language the target text without human intervention.Currently the state of machine translation is such that it involves some

24、 human intervention, as it requires a pre-editing and a post-editing phase. Note that in machine translation, the translator supports the machine and not the other way around.22Nowadays most machine translation systems produce what is called a “gisting translation” a rough translation that gives the

25、 “gist” of the source text, but is not otherwise usable.However, in fields with highly limited ranges of vocabulary and simple sentence structure, for example weather reports, machine translation can deliver useful results.232.1 Development of MT1950s: independent work by MT researchers, dictionary-

26、based, word-for-word translation, low-quality results1960s: hope for good quality, due to (i) computer development and (ii) syntactic analysisSince 1970s: computer-based tools for translators, operational MT systems involving human assistance, and pure theoretical research towards the improvement of

27、 MT methods. 24The recent memory facility: the storage of and access to existing translations for later reuse or revision or as sources of example translations.All current commercial and operational systems produce output which must be edited or revised if it is to be of published quality. MT works

28、best in domain-specific and controlled environments.252.2 MT research methodsLinguistic approaches: categorial grammartransformational-generative grammar (TG)dependency grammarstratificational grammarlexical-functional grammar (LFG)generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG)head-driven phrase struct

29、ure grammar (HPSG)Montague semantics, etc.26Non-linguistic theories used:information theoryneural networksconnectionismparallel processingstatistical methodsetc.27Practical approaches: the transfer approachthe interlingual approachthe knowledge-based approach282.3 Areas of MTMT qualityMT and the int

30、ernetSpoken language translationMT and human translation293. Corpus Linguistics Corpus (plural corpora): a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language-for example, to d

31、etermine how the usage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.303.1 Corpus LinguisticsCorpus linguistics deals with the principles and practice of using corpora in language study. A computer corpus is a large body of machine-readable texts.3132333.2 Concordance poor in Tale of

32、 Two Cities, Book 134353637383940413.3 Frequency count:Feminine Adjectives in 19th c. US FictionAdjectiveWomenMenlittle11259dear2015happy159pretty149sweet138lovely123pale115beautiful96Total words400004000042433.4 Dictionary making: Collins COBUILD44453.5 The roles of corpus dataSpeech researchLexica

33、l studiesSemanticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics464. Language and the InternetA linguist cant help but be impressed by the Internet. It is an extraordinarily diverse medium, holding a mirror up to many sides of our linguistic nature. The World Wide Web, in particular, offers a home to virtually a

34、ll the styles which have so far developed in the written language newspapers, scientific reports, bulletins, novels, poems, prayers you name it, youll find a page on it. Indeed, it is introducing us to styles of written expression which none of us have ever seen before. It has often been said, the I

35、nternet is a revolution yes, indeed, but it is also a linguistic revolution.David Crystal (2001): Language and the Internet474.1 Internet terminology (Netspeak)bounce What your e-mail does when it cannot get to its recipient-it bounces back to you (unless it goes off into the ether, never to be foun

36、d again). BTW Used in an e-mail message to stand for by the way. cobweb page A Web page that hasnt been updated in a long time. 48compunications Any form of computer-based communication, including e-mail, fax, and voice mail. cybercafe Establishment with both coffee and internet access. Trendy in so

37、me places, unknown in others.49Cyberstyle The writing style used in most on-line communications. This style is characterized by one or more of the following traits: frequent use of abbreviations, acronyms, and jargon; street slang (e.g., using cuz instead of because); typos, misspelled words, and a

38、general inattention to grammar and sentence structure; a rambling, stream-of-consciousness style. 50咖啡雪 14:22:03看滿成近代黃金家了嗎可可冰 14:22:08米. 他們說周結(jié)論在里面演的好爛.咖啡雪 14:22:13還好拉 我都感動得犀利嘩啦的 不過里面有個(gè)鏡頭船幫了 我半夜看的可可冰 14:22:20啊 你再那看的 熬夜會長豆豆哦 咖啡雪 14:22:24下的 要不要穿給你 可可冰 14:22:30瑕疵吧 我去完啦51egosurfing Searching databases, t

39、he Internet, newspapers, magazines, wire services, research papers and new books for your own name. Egosurfing is the crack cocaine of the cognoscenti, each hit producing yelps of pleasure and mounting delirium. 52F2F Stands for face to face, and refers to when you actually meet face to face people

40、you have been corresponding with through e-mail or other parts of the Internet IMHO (In My Humble Opinion) A shorthand appended to a comment written in an on-line forum, IMHO indicates that the writer is aware that they are expressing a debatable view, probably on a subject already under discussion.

41、 One of many such shorthands in common use on-line, especially in discussion forums. 53mouse potato The on-line generations answer to the couch potato. A computer addict. A mouse potato clings to a computer as persistently as a couch potato roots before a television set. 54Netiquette A pun on etique

42、tte referring to proper behavior on a network.nomepage A homepage with little or no content - perhaps an image of the persons pet and a few links to their favorite tv show, but nothing original and not much of anything else. read-only user A person who uses the Internet exclusively for reading Web pages, e-mail, and newsgroups instead of creating their own content.55ROM brain A person who refuses to accept input and ideas from other