增值稅作為一種新的收入資源的中英文翻譯

1、- -Value-AddedTaxasaNewRevenueSourceJamesM.BickleyVerticalEquityTheverticalequityofataxconcernsthetaxtreatmentofhouseholdswithdifferentabilities-to-pay.Verticalequitymaybeaffectedbythemeasureofability-to-payandthetaxperiod.Someeconomistsarguethatpersonalconsumptionisthebestmeasureofability-to-paybec

2、auseconsumptionistheactualtakingofscarceresourcesfromtheeconomicsystem.Themostcommonmeasureofability-to-payisstillincome.Proponentsofincomeasameasureofability-to-payarguethatsavingyieldsutilitybyprovidinghouseholdswithgreatereconomicsecurity.Taxincidenceusuallyismeasuredbyusingaone-yearperiod.Dataon

3、consumptionandincomearereadilyavailableinone-yearincrementsandtheconceptofaone-yearperiodiseasilyunderstood.Butsometaxeconomistsbelievetaxincidenceismoreaccuratelydeterminedbymeasuringconsumptionandincomeoverahouseholdslifetime.Ifconsumptionisusedasameasureofability-to-pay,asingle-rateVATwithabroadb

4、asewouldbeapproximatelyproportionalregardlessofthetimeperiod.Inotherwords,thepercentageofconsumptionpaidinVATbyhouseholdswouldbeapproximatelyconstantasthelevelofhouseholdconsumptionrises.Ifdisposableincomeoveraone-yearperiodisthemeasureofability-to-paythenaVATwouldbeviewedasextremelyregressive;thati

5、s,thepercentageofdisposableincomepaidinVATwoulddecreaserapidlyasdisposableincomeincreases.Inmostdiscussionsoftaxpolicy,bothaone-yearperiodandannualdisposableincome(orsomeotherannualincomemeasure)areused;consequently,theVATisviewedasbeingextremelyregressive.Ifdisposableincomeoveralifetimeisthemeasure

6、ofability-to-pay,aVATwouldbemildlyregressive.Forlowerandmiddleincomehouseholds,itappearsthatnearlyallsavingsareeventuallyconsumed.Thus,itmaybethatforthevastmajorityofhouseholds,lifetimeconsumptionandlifetimeincomeareapproximatelyequal.Highincomehouseholdstendtohavenetsavingsovertheirlifetimes;conseq

7、uently,theywouldpayalowerproportionoftheirdisposableincomesinVATthanlowerincomegroups.SomesupportersofprogressivetaxationopposetheVATprimarilybecausetheybelievethatitisregressive.SomeofthesecriticsareespeciallyconcernedabouttheabsoluteburdenofaVATonlowincomehouseholds.Thedegreeofregressivity,however

8、,canbereducedbygovernmentpolicy.Threeoften-mentionedpoliciesareexclusionsandmultiplerates,incometaxcredits,andearmarkingofsomerevenuesforincreasedsocialspending(includingindexedtransferpayments).NeutralityFromaneconomicperspective,thegreaterasourceofrevenuesneutrality,themoreitisgenerallypreferred;t

9、hatis,thelessitaffectseconomicdecisions.Conceptually,aVATonallconsumptionexpenditureswithasingleratethatisconstantovertimewouldberelativelyneutralcomparedtoothermajorrevenuesources.Forhouseholds,twooutofthreemajordecisionswouldnotbealteredbythishypotheticalVAT.First,thisVATwouldnotalterchoicesamongg

10、oodsbecauseallgoodswouldbetaxedatthesamerate.Thus,relativepriceswouldnotchange.Second,aVATwouldnotaffectthesaving-consumptiondecisionbecausesavingwouldonlybetaxedonce;thatis,whensavingsarespentonconsumption.Butthethirddecision,ahouseholdswork-leisuredecision,wouldbeaffectedbyaVAT.Leisurewouldnotbeta

11、xed,butthereturnsfromworkwouldbetaxedwhenspentongoods.(Incontrast,theincometaxaffectsboththesaving-consumptiondecisionandthework-leisuredecision.)Forafirm,theVATwouldnotaffectdecisionsconcerningmethodoffinancing(debtorequity),choiceamonginputs(unlesssomesuppliersareexemptorzero-rated),typeofbusiness

12、organization(corporation,partnership,orsoleproprietorship),andgoodstoproduce.Othertypesoftaxesmayaffectoneormoreofthesetypesofdecisions.ButthisconceptuallypureformofaVATisnotfeasible.AVATcannotbeleviedonallconsumergoods;consequently,pricesoftaxedgoodswillriserelativetountaxedgoods.Thischangeinrelati

13、vepriceswouldaffectconsumersdecisionsaboutwhichgoodstopurchase,and,consequently,firmsdecisionsaboutwhichgoodstoproduce.Furthermore,mostnationswithVATshavemorethanonerate.MultipleVATratesalterrelativepricesoftaxedgoods.Finally,VATratesinmostnationshavetendedtoriseovertime.Despitethesedeviationsfromap

14、ureformofVAT,abroad-basedVATisrelativelyneutral.Thisneutralityisgreaterifthetaxrateisrelativelylow,ascouldbethecaseforaVATtoreducetheU.S.deficit.InflationAVATinitiallywouldcauseaone-timeincreaseinthepriceleveliftheFederalReservehadanexpansionarymonetarypolicytooffsetthecontractionaryeffectsofthetax.

15、orexample,a4%VATon75%ofconsumeroutlaysmightcauseanestimatedincreaseinconsumerpricesofapproximately3%.AVATwouldhavesomesecondarypriceeffects.Somegoodswouldriseinpricebecausetheirfactorsofproduction,especiallylabor,arelinkedtopriceindexes.Yet,iftheFederalReservedisregardedthesesecondarypriceincreasesi

16、nformulatingmonetarypolicy,thesesecondarypriceincreaseswouldtendtobeoffsetbypricereductionsinothersectorsoftheeconomy.Insummary,aVATwouldprobablycauseaone-timeincreaseinthepricelevelbutnotaffecttherateofinflationi.e.,increasedpricesinthefuture.Balance-of-TradeWithflexibleexchangerates,thesupplyandde

17、mandfordifferentcurrenciesdeterminetheirrelativevalue.Ifacountryhasadeficitinitsbalance-of-trade,thisdeficitmustfinancedbyanetimportationofforeigncapital.Butnetcapitalinflowscannotcontinueindefinitely.Thus,overtime,thiscountryscurrencywilltendtodeclineinvaluerelativetothecurrenciesofothernations.Con

18、sequently,thiscountrysbalance-of-tradedeficitwilleventuallydeclineasitsexportsriseandimportsfall.Hence,economictheoryindicatedthataVAToffersnoadvantageoverothermajortaxesinreducingadeficitinthebalance-of-trade.NationalSavingIfaVATisleviedtoreplacepartofincometaxrevenue,whatwouldbetheeffectontheperso

19、nalsavingrate.AVATtaxessavingswhentheyarespentonconsumption,allowingsavingstocompoundatapre-taxrate.Butanincometaxisleviedonallincomeatthetimeitisearned,regardlessofwhethertheincomeisconsumedorsaved.Theincometaxisalsoleviedontheearningsfromincomesaved.Consequently,someproponentsoftheVAThavearguedtha

20、tchoosingaVATratherthananincometaxtoraiserevenuewouldincreasethereturnfromsaving,and,consequently,raisethesavingsrate.Therateofreturnonsavings,however,hasneverbeenshowntohaveasignificanteffectonthesavingsratebecauseoftwoconflictingeffects.First,eachdollarsavedtodayresultsinthepossibilityofahigheramo

21、untofconsumptioninthefuture.Thisrelativeincreaseinthereturnfromsavingcausesahouseholdtowanttosubstitutesavingforconsumptionoutofcurrentincome(substitutioneffect).Butahigherrateofreturnonsavingsraisesahouseholdsincome;consequently,thehouseholdhastosavelesstoaccumulatesometargetamountofsavingsinthefut

22、ure(incomeeffect).Thus,thisincomeeffectencourageshouseholdstohavehighercurrentconsumptionandlowercurrentsaving.Insummary,thereisnoconclusiveevidencethataVATwouldincreasetherateofnationalsavingmorethananothertypeofmajortaxincrease.中文譯文增值稅作為一種新的收入資源由比克利詹姆斯（一）縱向公平一種稅的縱向公平涉及不同的能力家庭與薪酬的稅務(wù)處理問題。縱向公平可能受到的支付

23、能力和稅期的措施。一些經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家認(rèn)為個(gè)人消費(fèi)是支付能力的最佳措施，這是因?yàn)橄M(fèi)從經(jīng)濟(jì)系統(tǒng)的稀缺資源的實(shí)際獲得。大多數(shù)普通尺寸能力仍然是支付的收入。作為一種措施的能力支付收入的支持者辯稱節(jié)約產(chǎn)量的家庭提供更大的經(jīng)濟(jì)安全的實(shí)用程序。稅收的歸宿通常是通過使用為期一年來衡量。對消費(fèi)與收入的數(shù)據(jù)可方便地以一年為增量，為期一年的概念很容易理解。但一些稅經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家認(rèn)為，測量一個(gè)家庭的生命周期內(nèi)的消費(fèi)與收入更能準(zhǔn)確地確定稅收的歸宿。如果消費(fèi)用作支付能力，單率增值稅與廣泛的基礎(chǔ)無任何時(shí)間段的關(guān)系。換句話說，在增值稅支付的家庭消費(fèi)的百分比都是依據(jù)家庭消費(fèi)水平上升。如果為期一年的可支配收入是支付能力，然后增值稅將被視為

24、回歸點(diǎn)；隨著可支配收入的增加，增值稅占可支配收入的百分比會(huì)迅速下降。大多數(shù)的稅收政策者的討論，其可用于每年可支配收入（或一些其他每年的收入）；即增值稅被視為是極其回歸。如果在生命周期內(nèi)的可支配收入具有支付能力，增值稅將輕度回歸。從低等和中等收入家庭來看，幾乎所有的積蓄都是最終消費(fèi)。因此，它可能使絕大多數(shù)家庭的飲用消費(fèi)與終身收入大致相等。高收入家庭往往會(huì)節(jié)省了他們的壽命；因此，他們支付的增值稅占可支配收入的比例將比低收入群體低。一些支持累進(jìn)稅的人反對增值稅，主要是因?yàn)樗麄冋J(rèn)為這是倒退行為。這些批評者有些特別關(guān)注絕對增值稅對低收入家庭的負(fù)擔(dān)。但是，這樣可以減少政府的政策。三個(gè)經(jīng)常提到的政策是排除和

25、多個(gè)費(fèi)率，收入稅收抵免，并指定用途的一些收入增加社會(huì)支出（包括索引的轉(zhuǎn)移支付）。（二）中立從經(jīng)濟(jì)的角度看，更多的收入保持中立，在于有一般優(yōu)先考慮；也就是說，少影響經(jīng)濟(jì)決策。從概念上講，隨著時(shí)間的推移，相比其他的主要收入來源，有恒定的稅率的增值稅的所占消費(fèi)支出情況將相對中性。假設(shè)這種家庭增值稅有三個(gè)重大的決定不會(huì)改變。第一，此增值稅不會(huì)改變貨物之間的選擇，因?yàn)樗械呢浳飳⒄鞫惵氏嗤Ｒ虼?，相對價(jià)格不會(huì)改變。第二，增值稅不會(huì)影響儲(chǔ)蓄消費(fèi)決策因?yàn)楣?jié)約征稅將只有一次；即僅當(dāng)在消費(fèi)上花費(fèi)儲(chǔ)蓄時(shí)。第三，一個(gè)家庭的工作休閑的決定，將會(huì)影響增值稅。休閑時(shí)不征稅，但消費(fèi)時(shí)花在貨物上就需要征稅。（相反，所得稅影響儲(chǔ)蓄消費(fèi)決策和工作休閑決定。）一家公司的增值稅不會(huì)影響有關(guān)籌資投入（債務(wù)或股權(quán)）的決定，除非選擇一些供應(yīng)商能豁免或零稅點(diǎn)。一個(gè)或多個(gè)這些類型的決策，可能會(huì)影響其他類型的稅。但這種概念上的純增值稅形式是不可行的。對所有的消費(fèi)品，不能不征收增值稅；因?yàn)橄鄬τ谡鞫愗浳铮n稅貨品的價(jià)格將上漲。這種相對價(jià)格的變化會(huì)影響消費(fèi)者購買的有關(guān)貨品的決定，因此，生產(chǎn)的商品決策企業(yè)。此外，大多數(shù)國家的電視胸腔鏡手術(shù)有多個(gè)稅率。多個(gè)