電力部門控制二氧化硫排放的美國(guó)經(jīng)驗(yàn)

1、The US ExperienceControlling SO2 EmissionsIn the Power Sector電力部門控制二氧化硫排放的美國(guó)經(jīng)驗(yàn) Clean Air Initiative - AsiaUrumqi, China 2006Peter H. KokopeliU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyClean Air Markets DivisionHistory 歷史In the 1970s, the environmental, social, and economic effects of acid rain in the Unite

2、d States became a major concern to policy makers and the public. This resulted in passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970 and subsequent amendments in 1977 and 1990. 上世紀(jì)七十年代，酸雨在美國(guó)的環(huán)境、社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)影響已經(jīng)成為政策制訂者和民眾的主要關(guān)注對(duì)象。這導(dǎo)致了1970年“清潔空氣法案”的通過(guò)及其1977年和1990年的修訂。美 國(guó) 二 氧 化 硫 排 放 歷 史 Million Short Tons大 蕭 條 二 戰(zhàn) 清 潔 空 氣

3、法 案 無(wú) 清 潔 空 氣 法 案 酸 雨 項(xiàng) 目 Researchers linked acid rain to SO2 emissions. By 1990, two thirds of SO2 emissions in the US were from the power sector (Utilities) 科學(xué)家認(rèn)為酸雨的產(chǎn)生與二氧化硫排放有關(guān)。1990年以前，美國(guó)有三分之二的二氧化硫是電力部門排放的Three US Approaches to Controlling SO2 Emissions美國(guó)控制二氧化硫排放的主要措施Standards-based 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)限制NAAQS (Nat

4、ional Ambient Air Quality Standards) define attainment and protect human health by setting a limit on SO2 concentration nationwide. New and modified sources must meet technology and performance standards designed to prevent any significant deterioration of air quality. These standards set maximum em

5、ission levels and may specify BACT Best Available Control Technology for new units. 國(guó)家環(huán)境空氣質(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)規(guī)定了全國(guó)的二氧化硫濃度限值來(lái)保護(hù)人民健康。新建和改建的污染源必須滿足設(shè)計(jì)的技術(shù)和性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)來(lái)防止空氣質(zhì)量的惡化。這些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)設(shè)定了最大排放水平，還可能指定新設(shè)備要使用的“最佳可用控制技術(shù)”。Voluntary programs 自愿的項(xiàng)目Government agencies working with industry to establish 政府和工業(yè)部門合作建立Demand Side Management

6、programs, to encourage consumers to reduce usage during periods of peak demand. Electric utilities are extending time-of-use metering with three different price levels (on-peak, off-peak and intermediate) from commercial customers to residential. Smart meters display actual cost to the user. 需求方管理項(xiàng)目

7、，來(lái)鼓勵(lì)消費(fèi)者在需求高峰期減少用量。用電的高峰、低估和中間時(shí)期有不同的價(jià)格水平。Energy Conservation measures such as more efficient appliances 節(jié)能措施如節(jié)能設(shè)備Renewable energy. U.S. EPA is the first US government agency to purchase 100% renewable. (How much? 300 million kWh per year primarily through the development of wind farms). 可再生能源。美國(guó)環(huán)保署是第

8、一個(gè)購(gòu)買100可再生能源的的美國(guó)政府機(jī)關(guān) （多少？3億千瓦時(shí)每年，主要通過(guò)發(fā)展風(fēng)能）Three US Approaches to Controlling SO2 Emissions美國(guó)控制二氧化硫排放的主要措施Cap & Trade 排污交易The Acid Rain Program (ARP) established an absolute cap on SO2 emissions for affected sources. It is national in scope, and through market-based allowance trading it allows plant

9、operators to select their own compliance strategy. The EPA currently issues 8.95M SO2 allowances annually. Allowances are a financial asset and may be traded on the market. As such, they provide an incentive for industry to increase efficiency, innovate, and reduce emissions within certain timeframe

10、s. The U.S. EPA Clean Air Markets Division (CAMD) operates the ARP Cap & Trade program which is responsible for the bulk of SO2 reductions. 酸雨項(xiàng)目建立了一個(gè)所有二氧化硫污染源的排放總量的絕對(duì)限值。這是一個(gè)國(guó)家的總量，通過(guò)基于市場(chǎng)的排污交易，不同的企業(yè)可以選擇自己的達(dá)標(biāo)戰(zhàn)略。美國(guó)環(huán)保署現(xiàn)在每年發(fā)放了890萬(wàn)噸的二氧化硫排污配額。排污配額是一種資產(chǎn)，可以在市場(chǎng)上進(jìn)行交易。這樣一來(lái)，在一定時(shí)間框架下，企業(yè)有動(dòng)力提高他們的效率、創(chuàng)新和減排能力。Although

11、these approaches differ in philosophy and implementation they have been complementary to the goal of lowering emissions. 盡管這些措施的哲學(xué)和實(shí)施角度不同，他們都是實(shí)現(xiàn)減排目標(biāo)的重要補(bǔ)充。分 配 職 責(zé) 二 氧 化 硫 排 放 1990 Acid Rain Program (ARP) units in the US now total approximately 3,600. 美國(guó)現(xiàn)在約有3600個(gè)酸雨項(xiàng)目10 噸 10 噸 10 噸 5 噸3 噸7 噸藍(lán) 色 成 本 : $

12、200/噸 Green成 本 : $160/噸 褐 色 成 本 : $240/噸 消 減 量 : 5 噸 消 減 量 : 7 噸 消 減 量 : 3 噸 以 每 噸 $160 - $240 轉(zhuǎn) 讓 2 個(gè) 配 額 限 額 與 交 易 Essentials of Cap & Trade 排污交易的核心內(nèi)容Set a mandatory emissions cap based on sound scientific evidence that the limit will have the desired environmental effect. 足夠的科學(xué)證據(jù)說(shuō)明限制可以取得預(yù)期的環(huán)境收益，基

13、于此，設(shè)定強(qiáng)制性的排放總量限值Establish Cap & Trade as an alternative to traditional regulation not simply a trading feature added to existing regulation. 排污交易是傳統(tǒng)法規(guī)的一個(gè)補(bǔ)充，不是簡(jiǎn)單地把交易的特點(diǎn)賦予現(xiàn)有的法規(guī)Ensure that a significant number of sources will participate sufficient to create a viable allowance market. 保證有足夠的污染源參與交易來(lái)建立一個(gè)

14、有效的排污交易市場(chǎng)Allocate allowances in an amount not to exceed the cap. 給各個(gè)污染源分配允許的最大污染物排放量Mandate that sources must hold allowances to cover annual emissions. 強(qiáng)制污染源必須保留排污配額來(lái)沖抵年排放量Monitor and verify emissions. All records, including allowance holdings must be publicly available. 對(duì)各個(gè)源的排放量進(jìn)行監(jiān)督，所有記錄必須公開Enforc

15、e rules with automatic penalties.Assess results on a consistent basis to evaluate how the program is working over time. 持續(xù)評(píng)價(jià)項(xiàng)目實(shí)施的效果二 氧 化 硫 配 額 市 場(chǎng) 活 躍The SO2 allowance market responds to a variety of signals. Although the historical trend was stable (in the $200 per ton range) for a decade, prices i

16、n the last year have climbed in anticipation of lower caps. 很多信號(hào)影響二氧化硫排污交易市場(chǎng)。盡管2004年以前的十年里二氧化硫配額市場(chǎng)穩(wěn)定，但由于預(yù)期二氧化硫排放總量限值要下降，去年的二氧化硫排污配額的價(jià)格迅速上升。Current market price on 15 Sept, 2006SO2 Allowance Price (per ton)Monitoring & Reporting Emissions 排污的監(jiān)測(cè)和報(bào)告Monitoring of emissions is the foundation of a Cap & T

17、rade program. Continuous Emissions Monitors (CEMS) are used by 36% of ARP units but account for 96% of total SO2 emissions.排污監(jiān)測(cè)是實(shí)行排污交易的基礎(chǔ)。有36的酸雨項(xiàng)目使用連續(xù)排污監(jiān)測(cè)器，但是他們占二氧化硫排放總量的96。U.S. EPA does not certify CEMs, rather, it establishes performance standards for quality control and accuracy. This is intended

18、 to encourage innovation among equipment manufacturers. 美國(guó)環(huán)保署沒有開展連續(xù)排污監(jiān)測(cè)器認(rèn)證，不過(guò)，他建立了一個(gè)質(zhì)量控制和保證的性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。這樣做的目的是鼓勵(lì)儀器生產(chǎn)商進(jìn)行創(chuàng)新。ARP provides flexibility for low emitting sources where the use of CEMs is not cost-effective. Note that alternative monitoring methods error on the side of over reporting due to their

19、 lower accuracy. 酸雨項(xiàng)目為排污少的污染源提供了更大的靈活性，這些污染源如果使用持續(xù)排污監(jiān)測(cè)器是不劃算的。注意，替代監(jiān)測(cè)方法的高報(bào)誤差是它們的準(zhǔn)確性低導(dǎo)致的。Reporting, feedback, and auditing is all electronic. 報(bào)告、反饋和審計(jì)都是電子的。Public has access to data (CAMD Data and Maps): /gdm/ 網(wǎng)上數(shù)據(jù)公開Testing of a new CEMs on the stack. Stringent quality assurance of monitoring procedur

20、es is the foundation of accurate emissions reporting. 在煙囪上測(cè)試一個(gè)新的連續(xù)排污監(jiān)測(cè)器。嚴(yán)格的監(jiān)測(cè)程序的質(zhì)量保證是準(zhǔn)確的排污報(bào)告的基礎(chǔ)。Audits 審計(jì)MDC (Monitoring Data and Checking) application allows sources to check data before submitting to EPA. 監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)和核查的應(yīng)用使得污染源可以在給環(huán)保署提交報(bào)告前核實(shí)數(shù)據(jù)Emissions Tracking System performs Electronic Audit on 100% of

21、 submissions. 對(duì)所有提交的報(bào)告通過(guò)排污跟蹤系統(tǒng)實(shí)行電子審計(jì)EPA and states perform on-site audits. 環(huán)保署和各州實(shí)施當(dāng)場(chǎng)審計(jì)Substantial investment in information technology: 對(duì)信息技術(shù)的巨大投資providing free software tools to sources (such as MDC) 給污染源提供免費(fèi)軟件Data Warehouse of historical emissions (hourly) open to public 歷史排污數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)公開statistical anal

22、ysis of data 數(shù)據(jù)的統(tǒng)計(jì)分析tools for policy development and assessment 政策制定和評(píng)估工具Statistical analysis of CEMs test results連續(xù)排污監(jiān)測(cè)器的測(cè)試結(jié)果的統(tǒng)計(jì)分析Compliance & Enforcement 達(dá)標(biāo)和執(zhí)行Determining compliance: compare emissions to allowances. 達(dá)標(biāo)確認(rèn)：對(duì)比排污配額99.9% compliance rate 99.9的達(dá)標(biāo)率Assessing penalties for non-compliance 評(píng)價(jià)

23、不達(dá)標(biāo)懲罰U.S. penalties provide for automatic offset (deduct allowance from next years allocation) and financial penalty ($3,000/ton of SO2 ) as well as possible civil and criminal penalties 自動(dòng)抵消 （從下一年的排污配額里扣除），罰金 （每噸二氧化硫3000美金），和可能的民事和刑事處罰ARP 2005 results (3,394 units processed) 2005年酸雨項(xiàng)目成果 （3394個(gè)）with

24、out critical errors: 3,230 不嚴(yán)重違規(guī)的：3230with critical errors: 164 (affect SO2 emissions) 嚴(yán)重違規(guī)的：164個(gè)responded quickly & corrected critical errors: 147 及時(shí)反應(yīng)和改正的：147個(gè)more challenging resolutions: 17 有更大的決心的：17個(gè)CAMD works with sources to correct critical errors ahead of reporting deadlines. CAMD與污染源一起在報(bào)告截

25、止前改正違規(guī)行為Creating a culture of cooperation and compliance where government and companies can work together to improve compliance 建立合作和達(dá)標(biāo)文化，讓政府和企業(yè)一道致力于達(dá)標(biāo)率的提高Advantages of Cap & Trade 排污交易的優(yōu)點(diǎn)Certainty that a specific regional emissions level is achieved and maintainedMore regulatory certainty, complian

26、ce flexibility and lower permitting and transaction costs for sourcesFewer administrative resources needed by industry and government Government is focused on setting goals & assuring resultsIncentives for technology innovation and early reductionsCan harmonize with a variety of other mechanisms at

27、national and regional level.Lower compliance costs make further improvements feasible保證一定的區(qū)域性排污水平實(shí)現(xiàn)和保持更強(qiáng)的法規(guī)確定性，達(dá)標(biāo)靈活性，更低的限值和交易費(fèi)只需要很少的工業(yè)和政府行政資源，政府只集中設(shè)定目標(biāo)和確保結(jié)果鼓勵(lì)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和超前減排與國(guó)家和區(qū)域水平的各個(gè)其他機(jī)制很好地融合更少的達(dá)標(biāo)成本使下一步的進(jìn)步變得更加可行年 度 達(dá) 標(biāo) 成 本 低成 本 低 的 原 因 各 種 消 減 方 法 的 競(jìng) 爭(zhēng)持 續(xù) 的 技 術(shù) 革 新 的 刺 激 機(jī) 制儲(chǔ) 存 在 時(shí) 間 上 提 供 了 靈 活 性配 額 價(jià)

28、 格 為 決 策 提 供 了 基 準(zhǔn)交 易 不 受 限 制預(yù) 計(jì) 的 2010年 的 達(dá) 標(biāo) 成 本U.S. Acid Rain Program Results:Emission & Intensity Reductions美國(guó)酸雨項(xiàng)目成果：排放量和強(qiáng)度的下降濕 硫 酸 鹽 沉 積 的 減 少 1989-19911999-2001Point of Regulation法規(guī)Contribution to total emissionsOptions to cost-effectively control emissionsAbility to measure and report emissio

29、nsNumber of sourcesPotential for leakage (shifting emissions)Fairness 對(duì)排污總量的貢獻(xiàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)有效的排污控制選擇測(cè)量能力和排污報(bào)告源的數(shù)量泄漏的潛在威脅 （移動(dòng)源）公平SO2 Emissions from Fuel CombustionARP Units by Fuel Type(Source EPA; values may vary somewhat from official 2005 true-up numbers.)Coal-fired units comprise 31% of the ARP but are resp

30、onsible for over 96% of SO2 emissions in 2005燃煤機(jī)組占31，但對(duì)二氧化硫排放的貢獻(xiàn)率是96從燃料總類看酸雨項(xiàng)目的發(fā)電機(jī)組ARP Installed SO2 Controlsby Input Capacity(Source EPA; values may vary somewhat from official 2005 true-up numbers.)Less than 10% of ARP units have SO2 Controls but they are concentrated in the largest units. 不到10的酸雨

31、項(xiàng)目有二氧化硫控制但是他們都集中在最大的項(xiàng)目上根據(jù)供熱能力統(tǒng)計(jì)酸雨項(xiàng)目里安裝的脫硫設(shè)施Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD)尾氣脫硫ARP units utilize many of the Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) controls listed below but the decision on what technology to install is made solely by plant operators. 酸雨項(xiàng)目使用了以下很多尾氣脫硫技術(shù)，決定使用哪種技術(shù)的是工廠自己ARP Installed SO2 Controls

32、 by TypeA range of control efficiencies can be seen in aggregate monthly SO2 rates. 從圖可以看出不同脫硫技術(shù)的脫硫效率(Source EPA; values may vary somewhat from official 2005 true-up numbers.)ARP Aggregate SO2 Rates in 2005 2005年酸雨項(xiàng)目累計(jì)二氧化硫排放率The aggregate SO2 Rate for ARP Controlled units (.383) is less than half th

33、at of Non-Controlled units (.891) 酸雨項(xiàng)目的有脫硫設(shè)施的機(jī)組的累計(jì)二氧化硫排放率還不到普通機(jī)組的排放率的一半(Source EPA; values may vary somewhat from official 2005 true-up numbers.)ARP Units Without SO2 Controls Also Lower SO2 Emissions 沒有使用脫硫技術(shù)的酸雨項(xiàng)目單位也降低了二氧化硫排放ARP units without SO2 controls have dropped their SO2 rates primarily thro

34、ugh the use of low-sulfur coals (1.67high). 主要通過(guò)使用低硫煤 （低于0.61）Shipments of Powder River Basin coal (.2 - .54% sulfur) have grown to meet this demand. (Source EPA; values may vary somewhat from official 2005 true-up numbers.)(Source EPA; values may vary somewhat from official 2005 true-up numbers.)Controlled units produced 26% of megawatt output but only 14% of SO2 em