EquiyBeaGoalofEconomicolicy國際經(jīng)貿(mào)高級

TEXTGrowingInequality

Thedegreeofincomeinequalityvariesgreatlyfromregiontoregion.ItisgreatestinLatinAmericaandsub-SaharanAfrica,andlowestinEasternEurope;otherregionsfallbetweenthesetwoextremes.InLatinAmerica,theaverageGinicoefficient—themostcommonlyusedmeasureofinequality,with0representingperfectequalityand1representingtotalinequality—isalmost0.5.TheaverageGinicoefficientinsub-SaharanAfricaisslightlylower,butthereisconsiderablevariationamongcountries.IncomeinequalityhasaregionaldimensioninbothAfricaandLatinAmerica—averageincomesaresignificantlyhigherinurbanareasthaninruralareas.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Inrecentyears,incomeinequalityhasbeenincreasinginalargenumberofcountries.Thisincreasehasbeenmoststrikinginthetransitioneconomies,wheretheaverageGinicoefficienthadbeenaround0.25untilthelate1980s;bythemid1990s,ithadrisentomorethan0.30.Whilethismaynotappeartobealargeincrease,itisquitesignificantfortheshortperiodbeingassessed.Ginicoefficientstendtoberelativelystableincountriesoverlongperiods.IncomeinequalityhasalsoincreasedinseveralmajorindustrialcountriesandisbeginningtoincreaseinsomeEastAsiancountries.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings.Butwagestellonlypartofthestory.Thedistributionofwealth(and,byimplication,capitalincome)ismoreconcentratedthanlaborincome.InAfricaandLatinAmerica,unequalownershipoflandhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorintheoveralldistributionofincome.Furthermore,inrecentyears,therehasbeenashiftfromlabortocapitalincome(includingincomefromselfemployment)inmanycountries.Intransitioncountries,thisshifthasbeendueprimarilytotheprivatizationofstate-ownedassets.Theanalysisoftrendsinnonlaborincomeincountrieswithwelldevelopedcapitalmarketsandpensionfundsismorecomplicated.Pensionfundsandotherfinancialinstitutionsreceiveasizableportionofcapitalincome,andtheshareofcapitalincomeintotalhouseholdincometypicallychangesoverthelifecycleoftheindividualsineachhousehold.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

IsGlobalizationtheCause?Globalizationhaslinkedthelabor,product,andcapitalmarketsofeconomiesaroundtheworld.Increasedtrade,capitalandlabormovements,andtechnologicalprogresshaveledtogreaterspecializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessestogeographicallydistantlocations.Developingcountries,withtheirabundantsupplyofunskilledlabor,haveacomparativeadvantagerelativetodevelopedcountriesintheproductionofunskilled-labor-intensivegoodsandservices.Asaresult,productionoftheseproductsindevelopedcountrieshascomeunderincreasedcompetitivepressure.Economictheorytellsusthisshouldapplydownwardpressureontherelativecompensationofunskilledworkersindevelopedcountriesandupwardpressureonthecompensationoftheircounterpartsindevelopingcountries.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Basedonthistheory,someauthorshaveclaimedthatglobalizationistoblameforgrowingincomeinequalityindevelopedcountries.Othersarguethatthewideninggapbetweenthewagesofskilledworkersandunskilledworkersinthedevelopedcountriesisduetothedevelopmentanddispersionofskill-intensivetechnologiesratherthantoincreasedtrade.Severalempiricalstudieshavetriedtogaugetherelativeimportanceofbothtradeandtechnologicalprogressinthedeclineofrelativewagesofunskilledworkersindevelopedcountries.Estimatesofthecontributionofincreasedtradetothetotalincreaseofthewagedifferentialbetweenunskilledandskilledworkersrangefromnegligibleto50percent.Thislargevariationisafunctionofthestructureofproductionindevelopedcountriesandtheshareoftheirlabormarketthatisindirectcompetitionwithlow-skilledworkersindevelopingcountries.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

Thedebateregardingtheeffectofglobalizationonincomedistributionindevelopingcountriesmirrorsthedebateondevelopedcountries.Although,allotherthingsbeingequal,increasedopennesswouldbeexpectedtoincreasetherelativewagesofunskilledworkersindevelopingcountries,experiencehasbeenmixed.EvidencesuggeststhattherelativewagesofunskilledworkersincreasedinEastAsiancountriesinthe1960sand1970sbutdecreasedinLatinAmericainthe1980sandearly1990s.TherearetwopossibleexplanationsforwhywagesfellinLatinAmerica:first,theopeningupofdevelopingAsiancountries—Bangladesh,China,India,Indonesia,andPakistan—whereunskilledlaborisevenmoreabundant;second,theavailabilityofnewproductiontechnologiesthatarebiasedtowardskilledlabor.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

Theeffectglobalizationhasonincomedistributionseemstobedeterminedtosomeextentbyacountry’slevelofdevelopmentandthetechnologiesavailabletoit.Similarly,exposuretointernationalcompetitionmaychangeinstitutions(forexample,tradeunions)andtherebyaffectincomedistribution.Someobserverscontendthat,becauseofthemobilityofcapital,globalizationlimitstheabilityofunionworkerstoachievea“unionwagepremium,”thusdecreasingthebargainingpowerofworkersvis-à-viscapital.Inaddition,globalizationmayleadtosharpshort-runchangesinthedistributionofincome,asbarrierstotradearereducedandthedistributionofproductionisreallocatedamongsectors.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Itisoftenarguedthatglobalizationmakesitmoredifficultforgovernmentstoimplementequitablepolicies.Increasinglymobilecapitalandlaborhavelimitedtheabilityofgovernmentstolevytaxesandtransferincometothoseaffectedbyglobalization.Totheextentthatcapitalismoremobilethanlabor,theincidenceoftaxestofinancesafetynetsforthoseaffectedbyglobalizationisshiftedtolabor.

PolicyResponsesTheextenttowhichcountrieshavefocusedonpromotingequityandthestrategiestheyhaveadoptedvarywidely.Somecountrieshaveactivelypromotedtheuseofpublicresourcestoraisetheincomesofthoseonthebottomtieroftheincomedistribution.Othershavefocusedonthetoppercentilesbylevyinghighlyprogressivetaxes.Yetothers,concernedthatpoliciestargetingthepoormayresultineconomicinefficienciesanddistortionsthatretardgrowth,havetakenanindirectapproach,seekingtohelplowincomefamiliesbystimulatingoveralleconomicgrowth.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

InLatinAmericaduringthe1980s,theprimarygoalofpolicymakerswasachievingsustainablegrowth,andaviablebalanceofpaymentsandstructuralreformswereseenascriticaltoachievingthisgoal.Growthhasalsobeenoneoftheprimarygoalsofthetransitioneconomies,buttheirstrategieshaveincludedpoliciesaimedathelpinggroupslikelytobehurtbythetransition.Suchpolicieshaveincludedthedistributionofsharesofprivatizedenterprises,theadaptationofsocialpolicyinstrumentstoprotectvulnerablegroups,andtheestablishmentofsocialsafetynets(forexample,targetedsubsidies,cashcompensationinlieuofsubsidies,severancepayandretrainingforretrenchedpublicsectoremployees,andpublicworksprograms).However,thelackofbudgetaryresourceshasmadeimplementationofthesepoliciesdifficult.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Fiscalpolicy—taxationandspending—isagovernment’smostdirecttoolforredistributingincome,inboththeshortandthelongrun.However,theeffectofredistributivetaxpolicies,especiallyinthefaceofglobalization,hasbeensmall.Policymakersshouldfocusondevelopingabroadlybased,efficient,andeasilyadministeredtaxsystemwithmoderatemarginalrates.Althoughtheprimarygoalofthetaxsystemshouldbetopromoteefficiency,policymakersalsoneedtoconsiderhowtodistributetheburdenoftaxationsothesystemisseenasfairandjust.Theexpendituresideofthebudgetoffersbetteropportunitiesthanthetaxsideforredistributingincome.Thelinkbetweenincomedistributionandsocialspending—especiallyspendingonhealthandeducation,throughwhichgovernmentscaninfluencetheformationanddistributionofhumancapital—isparticularlystrong,andpublicinvestmentinthehumancapitalofthepoorcanbeanefficientwaytoreduceincomeinequalityoverthelongrun.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Theamountofresourcesgovernmentscanandshoulddevotetosocialexpendituresdependsonvariousfactors,includingthetax-to-GDPratioandtheresourcesdevotedtootherspending.Publicexpendituresshoulddisplaceprivateexpendituresonlywhentheyyieldhighersocialbenefits.Priorityshouldbegiventothemostproductivepublicexpenditures,andunproductivepublicexpenditures——forexample,excessivemilitaryspending,wagesforanover-staffedcivilservice,andbudgetarytransferstoinefficientpublicenterprises——shouldbecurtailed.Civilservicereformandtheprivatizationofservicesthatcanbebetterprovidedbytheprivatesector——especiallyifaccompaniedbyareallocationofexpenditurestothesocialsectors——arelikelytobebothgrowth-andequity-enhancing,particularlyindevelopingcountries,wherepublicsectoremployeescomeprimarilyfromthemiddle-andupper-middle-incomeclasses.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Outlaysonhealthandeducationcanimprovetheexistingpatternofincomedistribution,dependingtoalargeextentontheirallocationwithinsectorsandwhoreceivesthebenefits.Studiesshowthatspendingonbasichealthcareandprimaryeducationisfarmoreeffectiveinreachingthepoorthanspendingonhighereducationorhospital-basedcurativecare;theformerreducesdisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincomegroupsandcandecreaseincomeinequalityinthelongrun(see““PublicSpendingonHumanDevelopment,””bySanjeevGupta,BenedictClements,andErwinTiongsoninthisissue).Studiesalsoshowthat,incountrieswithoutsomeformofhealthriskpooling,seriousillnessesarethesinglemostimportantfactordrivingfamiliesintopoverty.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Althoughfiscalpolicyisusuallyviewedastheprincipalvehicleforassistinglow-incomegroupsandthoseaffectedbyreformprograms,anumberofcountrieshaveintroducedspecificlabormarketpoliciesinanefforttoinfluenceincomedistribution,therationalebeingthatrelativewagesexertastronginfluenceonoverallincomeinequality.ManyEuropeancountrieshaveoptedforhighminimumwages,generousunemploymentbenefits,andawiderangeofjob-protectionmeasures.Althoughthesepoliciescanresultinrigidities,advocatesmaintainthattheyhelpachieveasociallydesirableredistributionofincome,whileopponentsarguethattheydiscouragenewinvestmentanddampenjobcreationandgrowth.TheUnitedStates,whichhasoptedformoreflexiblelabormarkets,hasachievedhighemploymentlevels,butthecostmaybegreaterincomeinequality.Tomitigatethepotentialeffectofmarketflexibilityonlow-wageworkers,theUnitedStateshasintroducedwagesubsidiesthatUnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?simultaneouslyredistributeincomeandpromoteemployment.Giventhepotentiallylargeimpactoflabormarketpoliciesonearnings,thesecompetingvisionsofthelabormarketarecentraltothedebateoverincomeinequalityinmanydevelopingandnewlyindustrializedcountries.Governmentscanalsoindirectlyaffectincomelevelsanddistributionthroughmonetarypolicyandtheiroverallmacroeconomicstance.Forexample,highinflationtendstocurtaileconomicgrowthandincreaseincomeinequality.Tradeliberalization—especiallywhenitoccursindevelopingcountriesthathavehadrestrictivetradepolicies,suchastaxationofagriculturalexportsandprotectivetariffsonimports——mayboosteconomicgrowthandleadtomoreequitableconditions.Currencydevaluationsmayalsohaveimplicationsforequity,particularlyinlow-incomecountries,wherethepoorareoftenconcentratedintheagriculture-intensiveexportsectorandmiddle-andupper-incomeurbandwellerstendtobemoredependentonimports.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Anotherimportantissueiswhethergovernmentsshouldfocusonoutcomes—suchasdecreasingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpoverty—oronensuringthatallmembersofsocietyhaveequalopportunities.Inextremecasesofincomeinequality,outcomesareclearlycritical.Inothercases,settingupalevelplayingfieldmaybeallthatisnecessary,andgreateremphasiscanbeplacedonpoliciesthatfacilitatemobilitybetweenincomeclassesandonensuringthatincomeandwealthareacquiredjustlyandfairly.Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromoteequalityofopportunityincludederegulatingtheeconomy;settingupstrong,accountableinstitutions,includingawell-functioningjudicialsystem;reducingopportunitiesforcorruptpractices(curbingcorruptioncandirectlyreduceincomeinequality,becausethegainsfromcorruptpracticestendtobecapturedbythewell-to-do);andprovidingadequateaccesstohealthandeducationservices.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Governmentsseekingtoimplementequity-orientedpoliciesfaceanumberofobstacles.Firstandforemostisthefinancingrequired:highlevelsofspendingontargetedprogramsmaynotbeconsistentwithasustainablemacroeconomicframework.Second,governmentsinmanydevelopingcountries,wherealargeshareofthepopulationisengagedinruralandinformalsectoractivities,maybeunabletoreachthemostvulnerablegroups.Theruralandinformalsectorsmayhavelimitedinteractionwithformalsectorinstitutions,includingthegovernment,makingthedeliveryofgovernmentassistance(forexample,cashtransfers)problematic.Inasimilarvein,alackofadministrativecapacitymayhamperredistributiveefforts;forexample,taxevasionisasevereproblemincountrieswithweaktaxadministration,makingitdifficultforgovernmentstousethetaxsystemasavehicletofinanceredistributivepolicies.Politicalconstraints—low-incomegroupstypicallyhavelesspoliticalpowerthanotherUnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?interestgroups—mayimpedeeffortstoreallocatespendingtowardthepoororredistributelandorotherassetstothem.Legalimpedimentsmayalsopreventgovernmentsfromtakingmeasurestopromoteequity—forexample,constitutionalrulesonrevenuesharingmaylimittheamountofresourcesacentralgovernmentcanallocatetoredistributivepolicies.(excerptedfromFinance&Development,September1998)UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?ExercisesⅠ.TranslatethefollowingintoEnglish,usingthewordsorphrasesinthetext:1.衡衡量收入入分配的的最常用用的指標(biāo)標(biāo)themostcommonlyusedmeasuresofincomedistribution2.從從勞動(dòng)力力市場向向資本市市場的轉(zhuǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移theshiftfromlabourtocapitalmarkets3.生生產(chǎn)專業(yè)業(yè)化和專專業(yè)化生生產(chǎn)過程程的擴(kuò)散散specializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessesUnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?4.熟熟練工與與非熟練練工之間間日益拉拉大的工工資差距距5.偏偏向于技技術(shù)勞動(dòng)動(dòng)力的新新生產(chǎn)技技術(shù)newproductiontechniquesbiasedtowardskilledlabor6.阻阻礙增長長的經(jīng)濟(jì)濟(jì)無效率率和扭曲曲economicinefficiencyanddistortionsretardinggrowth7.可可持續(xù)增增長和可可行的收收支政策策sustainablegrowthandaviablebalance-of-paymentspolicythewideninggapbetweenthewagesofskilledworkersandthoseofunskilledworkersUnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?8.具具有廣泛泛基礎(chǔ)的的、有效效而易于于管理的的稅收體體系9.減減少不同同收入集集團(tuán)人力力資本的的明顯差差異reducedisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincomegroups10.與與宏觀觀經(jīng)濟(jì)規(guī)規(guī)劃相一一致的既既定項(xiàng)目目targetedprogramsconsistentwiththemacroeconomicframework11.關(guān)關(guān)于財(cái)財(cái)政收入入分配的的憲法原原則constitutionalrulesonrevenuesharingabroadly-based,efficientandeasilyadministeredtaxsystemUnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?12.通通過解解除經(jīng)濟(jì)濟(jì)的規(guī)定定管制來來促進(jìn)機(jī)機(jī)會平等等13.取取代津津貼的現(xiàn)現(xiàn)金補(bǔ)償償cashcompensationinlieuofsubsidies14.刺刺激公公共資源源利用和和整體經(jīng)經(jīng)濟(jì)增長長stimulatetheuseofpublicresourcesandtheoveralleconomicgrowth15.采采取有有效措施施促進(jìn)就就業(yè)和公公平takeeffectivemeasurestopromoteemploymentandequitytopromoteequalityofopportunitiesthroughderegulatingeconomyUnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Ⅱ.TranslatethefollowingsentencesintoEnglish:1.關(guān)于收入入分配的的大部分分辯論集集中在工工資收入入上，它它被認(rèn)為為是整體體收入分分配的一一個(gè)重要要因素。。但在非非洲和拉拉丁美洲洲，不平平等的土土地所有有權(quán)是一一個(gè)不可可忽略的的因素。。(centeron)Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings,whichhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorintheoveralldistributionofincomes.ButinAfricaandLatinAmerica,unequalownershipoflandisafactorthatcannotbeignored.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?2.全全球化將將全世界界各經(jīng)濟(jì)濟(jì)體的勞勞動(dòng)力、、產(chǎn)品和和資本市市場連接接起來，，并間接接導(dǎo)致生生產(chǎn)專業(yè)業(yè)化和專專業(yè)化生生產(chǎn)過程程向地理理位置遙遙遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)區(qū)擴(kuò)散。。(dispersion)Globalizationhaslinkedthelabor,productandcapitalmarketsoftheeconomiesaroundtheworldandhasindirectlyledtogreaterspecializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessestogeographicallydistantlocations.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?3.盡盡管管財(cái)政政政策被視視為幫助助低收入入人群和和受改革革計(jì)劃影影響的人人們的主主要工具具，許多多國家采采取了具具體的勞勞動(dòng)力市市場政策策來試圖圖影響收收入分配配。(inaneffortto)Althoughfiscalpoliciesareusuallyviewedastheprincipalvehicleforassistinglowincomegroupsandthoseaffectedbyreformprograms,quiteanumberofcountrieshaveadoptedspecificlabormarketpoliciesinanefforttoinfluenceincomedistribution.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?4.政政府府所能采采取的促促進(jìn)機(jī)會會均等的的措施包包括：取取消對經(jīng)經(jīng)濟(jì)的規(guī)規(guī)定管制制；建立立包括運(yùn)運(yùn)作良好好的司法法體系在在內(nèi)的強(qiáng)強(qiáng)有力的的，負(fù)責(zé)責(zé)任的機(jī)機(jī)構(gòu)；減減少腐敗敗行為的的機(jī)會；；提供獲獲得健康康和教育育服務(wù)的的充足機(jī)機(jī)會等。。(deregulate)Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromoteequalityofopportunitiesincludederegulatingtheeconomy;settingupstrongandresponsibleinstitutions,includingawellfunctioningjudicialsystem;reducingopportunitiesforcorruptpractices;andprovidingadequateaccesstohealthandeducationservices.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?5.另另一個(gè)個(gè)重要問問題是政政府是否否應(yīng)該關(guān)關(guān)注結(jié)果果，比如如減少貧貧困人數(shù)數(shù)，或保保證每個(gè)個(gè)人都有有公平的的機(jī)會。。(ensure)Anotherimportantissueiswhethergovernmentsshouldfocusonoutcomes—suchasdecreasingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpoverty,orensuringthatallmembersofsocietyhaveequalopportunities.UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Ⅲ.PutthefollowingpassageintoEnglish:有一種關(guān)于于財(cái)富分配配的理論表表明，不合合理的分配配和腐敗是是造成收入入水平不公公的主要原原因。這一一理論認(rèn)為為，財(cái)富要要經(jīng)歷4個(gè)個(gè)分配階段段——市場場、政府、、非政府組組織、以及及主要表現(xiàn)現(xiàn)為腐敗的的非法活動(dòng)動(dòng)。通常第第一個(gè)分配配階段———市場———會導(dǎo)致資資源分布不不均，而這這應(yīng)該由第第二個(gè)分配配階段，即即政府，來來糾正。在在第三個(gè)階階段，財(cái)富富的分配是是通過非政政府部門的的捐贈(zèng)來實(shí)實(shí)現(xiàn)的。捐捐款是以慈慈善活動(dòng)的的形式贈(zèng)予予窮人的。。接著便是是對財(cái)富的的非法掠奪奪，如搶劫劫、貪污、、逃稅和賄賄賂。這些些對社會的的公平和穩(wěn)穩(wěn)定所造成成的傷害是是巨大的，，而且是無無法測量的的。UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Onetheoryonwealthdistributionindicatesthatirrationaldistributionandcorruptionarethemajorreasonsfortheunevenincomelevel.Accordingtothistheory,wealthgoesthroughfourstagesofdistribution——themarket,thegovernment,non-governmentalorganizationsandunlawfulactivities,mainlycorruption.Usuallythefirststageofdistribution—themarket—willresultinanunevenspreadofr