西方文化第二個問題

Question2:

ChooseonerepresentativecharacterfromGermanclassicalphilosophersandmakeabriefremarkonhiscontributiontothelatersocialorculturaldevelopment.ImmanuelKantImmanuelKant

(22April1724–12February1804)wasaGermanphilosopherwhoiswidelyconsideredtobeacentralfigureofmodernphilosophy.Hearguedthatfundamentalconceptsstructurehumanexperience,andthatreasonisthesourceofmorality.

Histhoughtcontinuestohaveamajorinfluenceincontemporarythought,especiallythefieldsofmetaphysics（形而上學）,epistemology（認識論）,ethics,politicalphilosophy,andaesthetics（美學）.

CritiqueofPureReason純粹理性批判

ProlegomenatoAnyFutureMetaphysics

"AnsweringtheQuestion:Whatis

Enlightenment?"

GroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals

CritiqueofPracticalReason實踐理性批判

CritiqueofJudgment判斷力批判

ReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason

TheMetaphysicsofMorals

MajorworksTheCritiqueofPureReason

Kantdefineshistheoryofperception（知覺）inhisinfluential1781workTheCritiqueofPureReason,whichhasoftenbeencitedasthemostsignificantvolumeofmetaphysicsandepistemologyinmodernphilosophy.Kantmaintainsthatour

understandingoftheexternalworldhaditsfoundationsnotmerelyinexperience,butinbothexperienceandaprioriconcepts,thusofferinganon-empiricist（非經(jīng)驗主義者）critiqueofrationalist（理性主義者）philosophy,whichiswhatheandothersreferredtoashis"Copernicanrevolution".《純粹理性批判》的哲學要義

首先，康德在《純粹理性批判》的第一版序之中，闡明了對理性進行批判的必要性首先在于確定一般形而上學是可能還是不可能，以及規(guī)定源流、范圍和界限。但是康德于第二版序之中，反而不是著重于進行理性批判的條件，而是改變了知識與對象的關(guān)系：“不是知識依照對象，而是對象依照知識”，這一新概念，導致康德發(fā)動了哲學界中的“哥白尼式革命”。

TheCritiqueofPracticalReason

isthesecondofImmanuelKant'sthreecritiques,firstpublishedin1788.ItfollowsonfromKant'sCritiqueofPureReasonanddealswithhismoralphilosophy.

ThesecondCritiqueexercisedadecisiveinfluenceoverthesubsequent（先前的）developmentofthefieldofethicsandmoralphilosophy,beginningwithJohannGottliebFichte'sDoctrineofScienceandbecoming,duringthe20thcentury,theprincipalreferencepointfordeontological（道義論的

）moralphilosophy.《實踐理性批判》的哲學要義

倫理學方面，康德否定意志受外因支配的說法，而是認為意志為自己立法，人類辨別是非的能力是與生俱來的，而不是從后天獲得,他認為真正的道德行為是純粹基于義務而做的行為，而為實現(xiàn)某一個個人功利目的而做事情就不能被認為是道德的行為。因此，一個行為是否符合道德規(guī)范并不取決于行為的后果，而是采取該行為的動機。康德還認為，只有當我們遵守道德法則時，我們才是自由的，因為我們遵守的是我們自己制定的道德準則，而如果只是因為自己想做而做，則沒有自由可言，因為你就成為各種事物的奴隸。

TheCritiqueofJudgment,orinthenewCambridgetranslationCritiqueofthePowerofJudgment,alsoknownasthethirdcritique,isa1790philosophicalworkbyImmanuelKant.Init,Kantlaysthefoundationsformodernaesthetics.

Kant'sinfluence

onWesternthoughthasbeenprofound.Heaccomplishedaparadigm（范例）shift:verylittlephilosophyisnowcarriedoutinthestyleofpre-Kantianphilosophy.Thisshiftconsistsinseveralcloselyrelatedinnovationsthathavebecomeaxiomatic（公理的）,inphilosophyitselfandinthesocialsciencesandhumanitiesgenerally:

Kant's"Copernicanrevolution"thatplacedtheroleofthehumansubjectorknoweratthecenterofinquiryintoourknowledge,suchthatitisimpossibletophilosophizeaboutthingsastheyareindependentlyofusorofhowtheyareforus;

Hisinventionofcriticalphilosophy,thatisofthenotionofbeingabletodiscoverandsystematicallyexplorepossibleinherentlimitstoourabilitytoknowthroughphilosophicalreasoning;

Hiscreationoftheconceptof"conditionsofpossibility",asinhisnotionof"theconditionsofpossibleexperience"–thatisthatthings,knowledge,andformsofconsciousnessrestonpriorconditionsthatmakethempossible,sothat,tounderstandortoknowthem,wemustfirstunderstandtheseconditions;Histheorythatobjectiveexperienceisactivelyconstitutedorconstructedbythefunctioningofthehumanmind;

Hisnotion（概念）ofmoralautonomyascentraltohumanity

Hisassertion（主張）oftheprinciplethathumanbeingsshouldbetreatedasendsratherthanasmeansKant'sinfluencehasextendedtothesocial,behavioral,andphysicalsciences,asinthesociologyofMaxWeber,thepsychologyofJeanPiaget,andthelinguisticsofNoamChomsky.Kant'sworkonmathematicsandsynthetic（綜合的）apriori（先前的）knowledgeisalsocitedbytheoreticalphysicistAlbertEinsteinasanearlyinfluenc