語言學(xué)考試要點

Chapter1Introduction1.WhatislinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Thescopeoflinguistics:(1).phonetics語音學(xué)；phonology音位學(xué)；morphology形態(tài)學(xué)；syntax句法學(xué)；pragmatics語用學(xué)(2).sociolinguistics社會語言學(xué)；psycholinguistics心理語言學(xué)；appliedlinguistics應(yīng)用語言學(xué)Someimportantdistinctioninlinguistics(1)Descriptivevs.prescriptive描繪性與規(guī)定性Ifalinguisticsstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;②Ifthelinguisticsstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor”correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.(2)Synchronicvs.diachronic共時性與歷時性Asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent)asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.Diachroniclinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Langue&parole語言與會話①Languagereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.(4)Competenceandperformance語言能力與語言運用Alanguageuser'sunconsciousknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledhislinguisticcompetence.Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.(5)speechandwriting語言與文字Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.(6)traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistic傳統(tǒng)語法與現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)Definitionoflanguage:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Languageisasystem,.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticssymbolandwhatthesymbolstands.Languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific.Designfeaturesoflanguage(1)Arbitrariness隨意性referstotheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(soundsandmeanings)Productivity(creativity)能產(chǎn)性Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.duality兩重性Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.displacement移位性HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atmomentofcommunication.(5)culturaltransmission文化傳承性Functionsoflanguagereferential(toconveymessageandinformation),poetic(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake),emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions),conative(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandrequests),phatic(toestablishcommunionwithothers)metalingual(toclearupintentionsandmeanings).Informative(信息功能):togiveinformationaboutfacts.(ideational)Interpersonal(人際功能):toestablishandmaintainsocialstatusinasociety.(age,sex,language,background,accent,status)Performative(施為功能):languageisusedtodothings,toperformcertainactions.(name,promise,apologize,sorry,declare).Emotive/Expressive(感情功能):toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Phaticcommunion(寒暄溝通):tousesmallandmeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipormaintainsocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.(health,weather)Recreationalfunction(娛樂):theuseoflanguageforsheerjoy.(lyrics,poetry)⑦Metalingualfunction(元語言功能):totalkaboutlanguageitself.8.9.Chapter2PhonologyPhonetics（語音學(xué)）isthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’languages.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.2.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds：broadtranscription（寬式標(biāo)音）andnarrowtranscription（嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音）Abroadtranscription（寬式標(biāo)音）isthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.Anarrowtranscription（嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音）isatranscriptionwithlettersymbolstogetherwithdiacritics.Phonology（音位學(xué)）isthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Thedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonology:（語音的正字表征）①Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.③Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone（音素）,phoneme（音位）,allophone（音位變體）Aphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontextPhonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.（音位對峙，互補散布，最小對峙體）Somerulesofphonology（音位學(xué)規(guī)則）Sequentialrules序列規(guī)則Assimilationrule同化規(guī)則Deletionrule省略規(guī)則8.Suprasegmentalfeatures（超音段特點）：stress重音，tone音調(diào)，intonation語調(diào)9.10.Chapter3MorphologyClassificationofwords1）Variablevs.invariablewords:可變詞類和不能夠變詞類Variablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariablewords:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.2）Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords:語法詞類和詞匯詞類Grammaticalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsLexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.3）Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords:關(guān)閉詞類和開放詞類Closed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersareregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.Open-class:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsGrammatical---lexicalwordsclosed-class---open-classwords

notMorphere(詞素)：theminimalmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Linguisticsusethetermmorphologytoreferthepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure.4.Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme(自由語素和黏著語素)Amorphemewhichcanbeawordbyitselfiscalledafreemorpheme;amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotheroneisaboundmorpheme.5.Thevariantformsofamorphemearecalleditsallomorphs.(詞素變體)6.Inflectionalaffix&derivationalaffix(屈折詞綴和派生詞綴)Compound:thosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonefreemorphemes,thewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.Incompounds,thelexicalmorphemescanbeofdifferentwordclasses.Compoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentriccompound(

向心復(fù)合詞

)

theexocentriccompound(

離心復(fù)合詞

)9.Endocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof

self-control:“akindof

”;egakindofcontrolarmchair:akindofchair10.Exocentric:thereisnohead,sonotarelationshipof“akindofsomething”eg,scarecrow:notakindofcrowbreakneck:notakindofneck11.Chapter4SyntaxWhatisSyntax（句法）Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentences.句法就是研究語言的不一樣樣成分構(gòu)成句子的規(guī)則Syntacticrelationscanbeanalyzedintothreekinds:relationsofposition地點關(guān)系relationsofsubstitutability

代替關(guān)系relationsofco-occurrence

同現(xiàn)關(guān)系3.4.5.Chapter5SemanticsWhatisSemanticsSemanticsisthestudyofthemeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences.語義學(xué)是研究單詞、短語和句子的意義的學(xué)科TheconceptualistviewTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ThisisillustratedbytheclassicsemantictriangleortriangleofsignificancesuggestedbyOgdenandRichard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/formword/phrase/sentence

referencentThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.3.ThecontextualismMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofawordBehaviorism

-occurrence’orcollocations.Behavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningasthesituation“inwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.5.LexicalmeaningSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense----isconc