國外組織行為學(xué)課件 皮爾森 ch05

Chapter5TheoriesofWorkMotivationCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectivesDefinemotivation,discussitsbasicproperties,anddistinguishitfromperformance.Compareandcontrastintrinsicandextrinsicmotivationanddescribeself-determinationtheory.Explainanddiscussthedifferentfactorsthatpredictperformanceanddefinegeneralcognitiveabilityandemotionalintelligence.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectives(continued)Explainanddiscussneedtheoriesofmotivation.Explainanddiscussexpectancytheory.Explainanddiscussequitytheory.Explainanddiscussgoalsettingtheory,

goalorientationanddifferenttypesofgoals.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectives(continued)8. Discussthecross-culturallimitationsoftheoriesofmotivation.9. Summarizetherelationshipamongthevarioustheoriesofmotivation,performance,andjobsatisfaction.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhyStudyMotivation?

Whyshouldyoustudymotivation?Itisoneofthemosttraditionaltopicsinorganizationalbehaviour.Motivationisespeciallyimportantincontemporaryorganizations:GlobalcompetitivenessRapidchangesFlexibilityAttentiontocustomersCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhatIsMotivation?

Theextenttowhichpersistenteffortisdirectedtowardagoal.Thebasiccharacteristicsofmotivation:EffortPersistenceDirectionGoalsCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExtrinsicandIntrinsicMotivation

Expertsinorganizationalbehaviourdistinguishbetweenintrinsicandextrinsicmotivation.Whatisthedifference?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.IntrinsicMotivationMotivationthatstemsfromthedirectrelationshipbetweentheworkerandthetaskandisusuallyself-applied.Examplesinclude:Feelingsofachievement,accomplishment,challenge,andcompetencederivedfromperformingone’sjob,andthesheerinterestinthejobitself.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExtrinsicMotivationMotivationthatstemsfromtheworkenvironmentexternaltothetaskandisusuallyappliedbyothers.Examplesinclude:Pay,fringebenefits,companypolicies,andvariousformsofsupervision.Somemotivatorshavebothextrinsicandintrinsicqualities.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-DeterminationTheoryAtheoryofmotivationthatconsiderswhetherpeople’smotivationisautonomousorcontrolled.Autonomousmotivationoccurswhenpeopleareself-motivatedbyintrinsicfactors.Controlledmotivationoccurswhenpeoplearemotivatedtoobtainadesiredconsequenceorextrinsicreward.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-DeterminationTheory(continued)Extrinsicfactorscanleadtoautonomousmotivation.Autonomousmotivationfacilitateseffectiveperformance,especiallyoncomplextasks.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExtrinsicversusIntrinsicMotivatorsSomeevidencethattheavailabilityofextrinsicmotivatorscanreducetheintrinsicmotivationstemmingfromthetaskitself.Thisappearstooccurunderverylimitedconditionsandiseasilyavoidable.Bothkindsofrewardsareimportantandcompatibleinenhancingworkmotivation.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.MotivationandPerformancePerformancereferstotheextenttowhichanorganizationalmembercontributestoachievingtheobjectivesoftheorganization.Whilemotivationcontributestoperformance,therelationshipisnotone-to-onebecauseanumberofotherfactorsalsoinfluenceperformance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.FactorsContributingtoIndividualJobPerformanceCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GeneralCognitiveAbilityAperson’sbasicinformationprocessingcapacitiesandcognitiveresources.Generalcognitiveabilitypredictslearning,trainingsuccess,andjobperformanceinallkindsofjobsandoccupations.Itisanevenbetterpredictorofjobperformanceformorecomplexandhigher-leveljobs.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EmotionalIntelligence(EI)Theabilitytounderstandandmanageone’sownandothers’feelingsandemotions.PeterSaloveyandJohnMayerdevelopedanEImodelthatconsistsoffourinterrelatedsetsofskillsorbranches.Thefourskillsrepresentsequentialstepsthatformahierarchy.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.SaloveyandMayer’sFour-BranchModelofEICopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerceivingEmotionsAccuratelyinOneselfandOthersTheabilitytoperceiveemotionsandtoaccuratelyidentifyone’sownemotionsandtheemotionsofothers.ThemostbasiclevelofEIandnecessarytobeabletoperformtheotherstepsinthemodel.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.UsingEmotionstoFacilitateThinkingTheabilitytouseandassimilateemotionsandemotionalexperiencestoguideandfacilitateone’sthinkingandreasoning.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.UnderstandingEmotions,EmotionalLanguage,andtheSignalsConveyedbyEmotionsInvolvesbeingabletounderstandemotionalinformation,thedeterminantsandconsequencesofemotions,andhowemotionsevolveandchangeovertime.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagingEmotionstoAttainSpecificGoalsTheabilitytomanageone’sownandothers’feelingandemotionsaswellasemotionalrelationships.ThisisthehighestlevelofEIandrequiresonetohavemasteredthepreviousstages.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EmotionalIntelligence:ResearchEIpredictsperformanceinanumberofareasincludingjobperformanceandacademicperformance.EIismoststronglyrelatedtojobperformanceinjobsthatrequirehighlevelsofemotionallabour.EIhasbeenfoundtobemostimportantforthejobperformanceofemployeeswithlowerlevelsofcognitiveability.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheMotivation-PerformanceRelationshipItispossibleforperformancetobelowevenwhenapersonishighlymotivated.Wecannotconsidermotivationinisolation.Highmotivationwillnotresultinhighperformanceifemployeesaredeficientinimportantskillsandabilities.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.NeedTheoriesofWorkMotivationMotivationtheoriesthatspecifythekindsofneedspeoplehaveandtheconditionsunderwhichtheywillbemotivatedtosatisfytheseneedsinawaythatcontributestoperformance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.NeedTheoriesofWorkMotivation(continued)Needsarephysiologicalandpsychologicalwantsordesiresthatcanbesatisfiedbyacquiringcertainincentivesorachievingparticulargoals:NEEDSBEHAVIOURINCENTIVESANDGOALSCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.NeedTheoriesofWorkMotivation(continued)Needtheoriesareconcernedwithwhatmotivatesworkers.Processtheoriesareconcernedwithexactlyhowvariousfactorsmotivatepeople.Threeprominentneedtheoriesofmotivation:Maslow’sHierarchyofNeedsAlderfer’sERGTheoryMcClelland’sTheoryofNeedsCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Maslow’sHierarchyofNeedsAfive-levelhierarchicalneedtheoryofmotivationthatspecifiesthatthelowest-levelunsatisfiedneedhasthegreatestmotivatingpotential.Theneedsinclude:PhysiologicalneedsSafetyneedsBelongingnessneedsEsteemneedsSelf-actualizationneedsCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Maslow’sHierarchyofNeeds(continued)Thelowest-levelunsatisfiedneedcategoryhasthegreatestmotivatingpotential.Whenaneedisunsatisfied,itexertsapowerfuleffectontheindividual’sthinkingandbehaviourandisthereforemotivational.Whenneedsataparticularlevelofthehierarchyaresatisfied,theindividualturnshisorherattentiontothenexthigherlevel.Self-actualizationneedsbecomestrongerastheyaregratified.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Alderfer’sERGTheoryAthree-levelhierarchicalneedtheoryofmotivation(existence,relatedness,growth)thatallowsformovementupanddownthehierarchy.Aslower-levelneedsaresatisfied,thedesiretohavehigher-levelneedssatisfiedwillincrease.Theleastconcreteneeds(growthneeds)becomemorecompellingandmoredesiredastheyarefulfilled.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.RelationshipBetweenMaslowandAlderferNeedTheoriesCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Alderfer’sERGTheory(continued)Doesnotassumethatalower-levelneedmustbegratifiedbeforealessconcreteneedbecomesoperative.Ifthehigher-levelneedsareungratified,individualswillincreasetheirdesireforthegratificationoflower-levelneeds.Thefrustrationofhigher-orderneedswillleadworkerstoregresstoamoreconcreteneedcategory.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.MajorMotivationalPremisesofERGTheoryThemorelower-levelneedsaregratified,themorehigher-levelneedsatisfactionisdesired.Thelesshigher-levelneedsaregratified,themorelower-levelneedsatisfactionisdesired.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.McClelland’sTheoryofNeedsAnon-hierarchicalneedtheoryofmotivationthatoutlinestheconditionsunderwhichcertainneedsresultinparticularpatternsofmotivation.Needsreflectrelativelystablepersonalitycharacteristics.Concernedwiththespecificbehaviouralconsequencesofthreeneeds:achievement,affiliation,andpower.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.NeedforAchievementAstrongdesiretoperformchallengingtaskswell.Individualswithahighneedforachievementexhibitthefollowingcharacteristics:Apreferenceforsituationsinwhichpersonalresponsibilitycanbetakenforoutcomes.Atendencytosetmoderatelydifficultgoalsthatprovideforcalculatedrisks.Adesireforperformancefeedback.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.NeedforAffiliationAstrongdesiretoestablishandmaintainfriendly,compatibleinterpersonalrelationships.Peoplewithahighneedforaffiliationhaveanabilitytolearnsocialnetworkingquicklyandatendencytocommunicatefrequentlywithothers.Theyprefertoavoidconflictandcompetitionwithothers.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.NeedforPowerAstrongdesiretoinfluenceothers,makingasignificantimpactorimpression.Peoplewithahighneedforpowerseekoutsocialsettingsinwhichtheycanbeinfluential.Powercanbeusedtoservethepowerseeker,otherpeople,ortheorganization.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.McClelland’sTheoryofNeeds(continued)McClellandpredictsthatpeoplewillbemotivatedtoseekoutandperformwellinjobsthatmatchtheirneeds.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.McClelland’sTheoryofNeeds(continued)Peoplewithhighneedforachievement:SalesjobsorentrepreneurialpositionsPeoplewithhighneedforaffiliation:SocialworkorcustomerrelationsPeoplewithhighneedforpower:JournalismandmanagementCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchSupportforNeedTheoriesSupportforasimplertwo-levelneedhierarchy.Frustrationofrelatednessneedsincreasesthestrengthofexistenceneeds.ThesimplicityandflexibilityofERGtheoryseemtocapturethehumanneedstructurebetterthanthegreatercomplexityandrigidityofMaslow’stheory.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchSupportforNeedTheories(continued)ResearchonMcClelland’sneedtheoryisgenerallysupportiveoftheideathatparticularneedsaremotivationalwhentheworksettingpermitsthesatisfactionoftheseneeds.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagerialImplicationsofNeedTheoriesAppreciatediversityoftheneedsofindividualemployeesandofferincentivesorgoalsthatcorrespondtothem.Appreciatethemotivationalpotentialofintrinsicmotivatorsandtheexistenceofhigher-orderneeds.Higher-orderneedswillfailtodevelopunlesslower-levelneedsarereasonablywellgratified.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ProcessTheoriesofWorkMotivationMotivationtheoriesthatspecifythedetailsofhowmotivationoccurs.Threeimportantprocesstheories:ExpectancytheoryEquitytheoryGoalsettingtheoryCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExpectancyTheoryAprocesstheorythatstatesthatmotivationisdeterminedbytheoutcomesthatpeopleexpecttooccurasaresultoftheiractionsonthejob.ThebasiccomponentsofVictorVroom’sexpectancytheoryare:OutcomesInstrumentalityValenceExpectancyForceCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.AHypotheticalExpectancyModelCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.OutcomesTheconsequencesthatmayfollowcertainworkbehaviours.First-leveloutcomesareofparticularinteresttotheorganization(e.g.,productivity).Expectancytheoryisconcernedwithspecifyinghowanemployeemightattempttochooseonefirst-leveloutcome(e.g.,highproductivity)overanother(e.g.,averageproductivity).Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Outcomes(continued)Second-leveloutcomesareofparticularinteresttotheindividualworkersuchaspay,asenseofaccomplishment,acceptancebypeers,andsoon.Theyaretheconsequencesthatfollowtheattainmentofaparticularfirst-leveloutcome.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Instrumentality(performance-outcomelink)Theprobabilitythataparticularfirst-leveloutcome(e.g.,highproductivity)willbefollowedbyaparticularsecond-leveloutcome(e.g.,pay). HighproductivityPay LowproductivityPayCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ValenceTheexpectedvalueofoutcomes-theextenttowhichtheyareattractiveorunattractivetotheindividual.Thevalenceoffirst-leveloutcomesisthesumofproductsoftheassociatedsecond-leveloutcomesandtheirinstrumentalities.thevalenceofaparticular=∑instrumentalitiesxsecond-levelvalencesfirst-leveloutcomeCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Valence(continued)Thevalenceofafirst-leveloutcomedependsontheextenttowhichitleadstofavourablesecond-leveloutcomes.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Expectancy(effort–performancelink)Theprobabilitythattheworkercanactuallyachieveaparticularfirst-leveloutcome.

Highperformance LowperformanceCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ForceForceistheendproductoftheothercomponentsofthetheory.Itrepresentstherelativedegreeofeffortthatwillbedirectedtowardvariousfirst-leveloutcomes.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Force(continued)Theforcedirectedtowardafirst-leveloutcomeisaproductofthevalenceofthatoutcomeandtheexpectancythatitcanbeachieved:

force=first-levelvalencexexpectancyWecanexpectanindividual’sefforttobedirectedtowardthefirst-leveloutcomethathasthelargestforceproduct.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ThePremisesofExpectancyTheoryPeoplewillbemotivatedtoperforminthoseworkactivitiesthattheyfindattractiveandthattheyfeeltheycanaccomplish.Theattractivenessofvariousworkactivitiesdependsontheextenttowhichtheyleadtofavourablepersonalconsequences.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExpectancyTheory(continued)Expectancytheoryisbasedontheperceptionsoftheindividualworker.Itcanhandleanyformofsecond-leveloutcomethathasrelevanceforthepersoninquestion(extrinsicandintrinsic).Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExpectancyModelforTonyAngelasCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExpectancyModelforTonyAngelas(continued)Thevalenceofhighperformance:(5x.6)+(7x.3)=5.1.Thevalenceofaverageperformance:(5x.2)+(7x.1)=1.7.HighperformanceismorevalentforTonythanaverageperformance.DoesthismeanthatTonywilltrytoperformatahighlevel?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExpectancyModelforTonyAngelas(continued)Theforceassociatedwithhighperformance:.3x5.1=1.53Theforceassociatedwithaverageperformance:1x1.7=1.70AlthoughhighperformanceisattractivetoTony,hewillprobablyperformatanaveragelevel.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchSupportforExpectancyTheoryModeratelyfavourablesupportforexpectancytheory.Thereisespeciallygoodevidencethatthevalenceoffirst-leveloutcomesdependsontheextenttowhichtheyleadtofavourablesecond-levelconsequences.Expertsinmotivationgenerallyacceptexpectancytheory.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagerialImplicationsofExpectancyTheoryBoostExpectancies:Oneofthemostbasicthingsmanagerscandoisensurethattheiremployeesexpecttobeabletoachievefirst-leveloutcomes.Expectanciescanusuallybeenhancedby:ProvidingproperequipmentTrainingDemonstratingcorrectworkproceduresExplaininghowperformanceisevaluatedListentoemployeeproblemsCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagerialImplicationsofExpectancyTheory(continued)ClarifyRewardContingencies:Employeesshouldbeconvincedthatfirst-leveloutcomesareclearlyinstrumentalinobtainingpositivesecond-leveloutcomesandavoidingnegativeoutcomes.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagerialImplicationsofExpectancyTheory(continued)AppreciateDiverseNeeds:Managersshouldanalyzethediversepreferencesofemployeesandattempttodesignindividualized“motivationalpackages”tomeettheirneeds.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EquityTheoryMotivationstemsfromacomparisonoftheinputsoneinvestsinajobandtheoutcomesonereceivesincomparisonwiththeinputsandoutcomesofanotherpersonorgroup.Inwhatsenseisequitytheoryatheoryofmotivation?Individualsaremotivatedtomaintainanequitableexchangerelationship.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EquityTheory(continued)Possibletacticsforreducinginequity:Perceptuallydistortone’sowninputsoroutcomesPerceptuallydistorttheinputsoroutcomesofthecomparisonpersonorgroupChooseanothercomparisonpersonorgroupAlterone’sinputsoralterone’soutcomesLeavetheexchangerelationshipCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EquityTheoryExampleTerryisamiddlemanager.Hehas:5yearsworkexperienceM.B.A.degreeGoodperformanceAsalaryof$75,000ayearCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EquityTheoryExample(continued)TerrylearnsthatMaxine,aco-workermakesthesamesalaryhedoes.Shehas:1yearofworkexperienceABachelor’sdegreeAverageperformanceWhatwillTerryconcludewhenhecompareshisoutcome/inputratiotoMaxine’s?WhatmightTerrydo?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EquityTheoryExample(continued)InTerry’sview,heisunderpaidandshouldbeexperiencinginequity.Hemightresolvethisinequitypsychologicallyorbehaviourally.IfMaxineviewstheexchangerelationshipidenticallytoTerry–sameinputsandsameoutcomes-whatwillshebeexperiencing?Whatmightshedo?Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EquityTheoryExample(continued)Maxinewillalsoexperienceinequitybutfromoverpayment.Equitytheoryissomewhatvagueaboutwhenindividualswillemployvariousinequityreductionstrategies.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GenderandEquityBothmenandwomentendtochoosesame-sexcomparisonpersons.Thismightprovideapartialexplanationforwhywomenarepaidlessthanmen,evenforthesamejob.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchSupportforEquityTheoryResearchsupportsthetheorywheninequityoccursbecauseofunderpayment.Whenworkersareunderpaidonanhourlybasis,theytendtolowertheirinputsbyproducinglesswork.Whenworkersareunderpaidonapiece-ratebasis,theytendtoproduceahighvolumeoflow-qualitywork.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchSupportforEquityTheory(continued)Someevidencethatunderpaymentinequityleadstoresignation.Thetheory’spredictionsregardingoverpaymentinequityhavereceivedlesssupport.Suggeststhatpeopletolerateoverpaymentmorethanunderpaymentortheyuseperceptualdistortiontoreduceoverpaymentinequity.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagerialImplicationsofEquityTheoryPerceivedunderpaymentwillhaveavarietyofnegativemotivationalconsequencesfortheorganization.Understandingtheroleofcomparisonpeopleisespeciallycrucial.Awarenessofthecomparisonpeoplechosenbyworkersmightsuggeststrategiesforreducingperceptionsofinequity.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalSettingAgoalistheobjectoraimofanaction.Personalperformancegoalsarevagueornonexistentformanyorganizationalmembers.Researchhasdemonstratedwhenandhowgoalsettingcanbeeffective.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalSettingTheoryAprocesstheorythatstatesthatgoalsaremotivationalwhentheyarespecific,challenging,andwhenorganizationalmembersarecommittedtothemandfeedbackaboutprogresstowardgoalattainmentisprovided.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhyareGoalsMotivational?Goalsaremotivationalbecauseoffourmechanisms:Theydirectattentiontowardgoal-relevantactivities.Theyleadtogreatereffort.Theyincreaseandprolongpersistence.Theyleadtothediscoveryanduseoftask-relevantstrategiesforgoalattainment.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheMechanismsofGoalSettingCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalSpecificitySpecificgoalsaregoalsthatspecifyanexactlevelofachievementforpeopletoaccomplishinaparticulartimeframe.“IwillenrollinfivecoursesnextsemesterandachieveaBorbetterineachcourse”isaspecificgoal.“Iwilldomybest”isnotaspecificgoalsincelevelofachievementandtimeframearebothvague.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalChallengeGoalsthatareeasyorimpossibletoachievewillnotbemotivational.Goalchallengeisbestwhenitispeggedtothecompetenceofindividualworkersandincreasedastheparticulartaskismastered.Baseinitialgoalsonpastperformance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalCommitmentIndividualsmustbecommittedtospecific,challenginggoalsifthegoalsaretobemotivational.Theeffectofgoalsonperformanceisstrongestwhenindividualshavehighgoalcommitment.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalFeedbackSpecificandchallenginggoalsaremosteffectivewhentheyareaccompaniedbyongoingfeedbackthatenablesthepersontocomparecurrentperformancewiththegoal.Tobemosteffective,feedbackshouldbeaccurate,specific,credible,andtimely.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.EnhancingGoalCommitmentFactorsthatmightaffectcommitmenttochallenging,specificgoals:ParticipationRewardsManagementsupportCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ParticipationParticipationcanimprovegoalcommitmentandfacilitateperformanceinsomesituations:Whenaclimateofdistrustexistsbetweenmanagementandemployees.Whenparticipationprovidesinformationthatassistsintheestablishmentoffair,realisticgoals.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Participation(continued)Researchshowsthatparticipationcanimproveperformancebyincreasingthedifficultyofthegoalsthatemployeesadopt.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.RewardsGoalsettinghasledtoperformanceincreaseswithouttheintroductionofmonetaryincentivesforgoalaccomplishment.Goalsettingshouldbecompatiblewithanysystemtotiepaytoperformance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.SupportivenessWhensupervisorsbehaveinacoercivemannertoencouragegoalaccomplishment,theycanbadlydamageemployeegoalcommitment.Supervisorsmustdemonstrateadesiretoassistemployeesingoalaccomplishmentandbehavesupportivelyiffailureoccurs.Threatandpunishmentinresponsetofailurewillbeextremelycounterproductive.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalOrientationAnindividual’sgoalpreferencesinachievementsituations.Astableindividualdifferencethataffectsperformance.Threegoalorientations:LearninggoalorientationPerformance-provegoalorientationPerformance-avoidgoalorientationCopyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningGoalOrientationApreferencetolearnnewthingsanddevelopcompetenceinanactivitybyacquiringnewskillsandmasteringnewsituations.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Performance-ProveGoalOrientationApreferencetoobtainfavourablejudgmentsabouttheoutcomeofone’sperformance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.Performance-AvoidGoalOrientationApreferencetoavoidnegativejudgmentsabouttheoutcomeofone’sperformance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalOrientation(continued)Goalorientationisimportantforlearningandperformance.Alearninggoalorientationispositivelyrelatedtolearningaswellasacademic,task,andjobperformance.Aperformance-avoidgoalorientationisnegativelyrelatedtolearningandlowertaskandjobperformance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.GoalOrientation(continued)Aperformance-provegoalorientationisnotrelatedtolearningorperformanceoutcomes.Alearninggoalorientationismosteffectiveforlearningandperformanceoutcomes.Aperformance-avoidgoalorientationisdetrimentalforlearningandperformance.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningandPerformanceGoalsGoalscanbedistinguishedintermsofwhethertheyareperformancegoalsorlearninggoals.Theeffectivenessofalearningorperformancegoaldependsonthenatureofthetask.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ProximalandDistalGoalsAdistalgoalisalong-termorend-goalsuchasachievingacertainlevelofsalesperformance.Aproximalgoalisashort-termorsub-goalthatisinstrumentalforachievingadistalgoal.Copyright?2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchSupportforGoalSettingTheoryResearchhasdemonstratedthatspecific,difficultgoalsleadtoimprovedperformanceandproductivityonawidevarietyoftasksandoccupations.Theeffectsofgoalsettingonperformancedependonan