如何做定性研究-Qualitative-research

QualitativeResearch“Youcanlearnalotjustbywatching”第一頁，共33頁。MAKINGSENSEOFOTHERS’REALITY第二頁，共33頁。THEINTERPRETIVEPARADIGMTheinterpretiveapproacharguesthatresearchshouldexplore“…sociallymeaningfulactionthroughthedirectdetailedobservationofpeopleinnaturalsettingsinordertoarriveatunderstandingsandinterpretationsofhowpeoplecreateandmaintaintheirsocialworlds”(Neuman,1997:68).

Weuse“…methodsthattrytodescribeandinterpretpeople’sfeelingsandexperiencesinhumantermsratherthanthroughquantificationandmeasurement”(TerreBlanche&Kelly,1999:123).第三頁，共33頁。WhattoObserveorStudyBehaviorsorpracticesEpisodes,commonevents(death,birth,etc.)Encounters–whengroupsorpeopleinteractRolesRelationshiproles–mother/daughter;wife/husband,Therapist/disabled,…etc.第四頁，共33頁。QualitativeResearchGoalsMeaning:howpeopleseetheworldContext:theworldinwhichpeopleactProcess:whatactionsandactivitiespeopledoReasoning:whypeopleactandbehavethewaytheydoMaxwell,2005第五頁，共33頁。PhasesinQualitativeResearch

Conceptualizeandplanstudy

Useliterature,formulatestudypurposeorquestion,identifystudysite,settingswhere/howdatacollectionwilloccur,participantsandentréetosettingStartstudywithconcurrentdatacollectionandanalysis.Analysisfocusedonidentifyingthemesandcategories--similaritiesindata.Questionorpurposemayemergeandberefined.DatacollectionstrategiesmaychangeSamplinganddatacollectiondeterminedbytheoreticalsaturation.AnalysisbasedonnarrativedescriptionGoal:Accesstheparticipantsworld&meanings.Researcheristheinstrument第六頁，共33頁。Selectingparticipants...ThegoalistogetthedeepestpossibleunderstandingofthesettingbeingstudiedRequiresidentifyingparticipantswhocanprovideinformationabouttheparticulartopicandsettingbeingstudied第七頁，共33頁。Selectingparticipants...ItisfraughtwithdifficultiesinidentifyingandselectinganappropriatenumberofparticipantswhocanprovideusefulinformationabouttheparticulartopicandsettingbeingstudiedUtilizespurposivesampling第八頁，共33頁。Random“Quantitative”SamplingSelectRepresentativeindividuals

Togeneralizefromsampletopopulation

Tomakeclaimsaboutthepopulation Tobuild/test“theories”thatexplainthepop’nPurposeful“Qualitative”Sampling

Selectpeople/siteswhocanbesthelpus understandourphenomenon

Todevelopdetailedunderstanding

Thatmightbe“useful:information Thatmighthelppeople“l(fā)earn”aboutthephenomenon Thatmightgivevoiceto“silenced”peopleDifferencesBetweenRandom&PurposefulSampling第九頁，共33頁。Samplesizeisalwaysdeterminedbytheanalysis.Itispartofthedesignandsoisinfluencedbythenatureoftheinquiry,qualityoftheinformants,thequalityofthedata.

Theresearcherislookingforsaturation—thepointatwhichthereisnonewcasescomingfromeachnewparticipantandredundantinformationkeepscomingup.

Thismustbedifferentiatedfromparticipantsaturationwheretheresearchercannotdraganythingnewoutoftheumpteenthinterviewwiththatparticularperson.

SamplinginQualitativeStudies第十頁，共33頁。PurposivesamplingPurposivesamplinggroupsparticipantsaccordingtopre-selectedcriteriarelevanttoaparticularresearchquestion.ex.VietnamesebusinessmenintheUSASamplesizesdependon:ResourcesandtimeavailableThestudy’sobjectivesIftheresearcherneedsaspecificnumberofparticipants,quotasamplingisbetter.11第十一頁，共33頁。QuotasamplingQuotasamplingbeginswithtwodecisions:Whatcharacteristics?Howmanypeople?Characteristicsareselectedinordertofindparticipantswhohaveexperiencewithorknowledgeoftheresearchtopic.Theresearchergoesintothecommunityandselectsthepredeterminednumberofpeopledemonstratingthepre-selectedcharacteristics.12第十二頁，共33頁。SnowballsamplingSnowballsamplingisaformofpurposivesampling.Participantsrefertheresearchertootherpotentialparticipants.Snowballsamplingisoftenusedtofindandrecruit“hiddenpopulations”–groupsnoteasilyaccessibletoresearchers.13第十三頁，共33頁。TypesofDataCollection

(or“fieldwork”)ObservationInterviewingFocusGroupsDocumentAnalysis第十四頁，共33頁。DoingtheInterviewIntroductionandBuildingRapport

explainpurposeagainverbalconfidentialityassurance(andgooverform)norightorwronganswers…o.k.toaskquestionsandclarifyaskpermissiontorecordYourQuestions

Ifflexibleformat…listofthingstobesuretotalkaboutTogetrichdata:PROBEANDFOLLOW

YouandtheInterview:attending,listening,thinking,takingnotes,taping

notetaking–clarifysomething;tokeepyoufocusedsilenceandpatience–balancedwithkeepingtheinterviewgoingredirectlong-windedtangentsbacktoyourlineoffocus第十五頁，共33頁。AftertheInterview:WritinguptheInterviewand…SummaryandnotesofmainpointsVerbatimtranscripts(don’tletthempileup)Ideas–tentativepiecesofanalysisMethodologicaldifficultiesPersonalemotionalexperienceRespondingtointervieweerequests;emotionalissues?第十六頁，共33頁。TheThree-InterviewSeries

(Seidman,1998)InterviewOne:LifeHistoryInterviewTwo:DetailsoftheExperienceInterviewThree:ReflectionontheMeaning第十七頁，共33頁。DataCollectionMethods:

In-depthInterviewsSomestudiescannotemploytheparticipantobservationmethodE.g.,Desroches’sstudyofbankrobbersIn-depthinterviewsallowparticipantstodescribetheirexperiencesandthemeaningofeventstakingplaceintheirlivesVerbatimquotescapturethelanguageandmeaningexpressedbyparticipantsInterviewsareflexibleandallowforprobingInterviewmethodisquitediverse,adaptive第十八頁，共33頁。In-depthInterviews(cont’d)Spradley–threekeyelementsfortheinterviewmethodtobesuccessfulExplicitpurpose–researcherandinformantareawarethatthediscussionhasapurposeEthnographicexplanations–researchertriesoutexplanationsontheparticipantstoseeiftheymakesenseEncouragetheinformantstousecolloquiallanguage,andteachtheresearcheritsmeaning第十九頁，共33頁。In-depthInterviews(cont’d)Ethnographicquestionsinclude:Descriptivequestions–askparticipantstodescribetheirexperiences(e.g.,theirideas,circumstances,viewpoints,dilemmas,etc)Structuralquestions–askparticipantshowtheyorganizetheirworld(e.g.,activities)Contrastquestions–askparticipantswhatismeantbyspecificterminologyPrus&Grillsstressthevalueoftheinterviewmethodinamulti-methodapproach第二十頁，共33頁。DataCollectionMethods:

FocusGroupInterviewsInterviewformat,butinagroupsetting6-12participantswithcommonexperienceDatesbacktothe1940s–usedtoassesseffectivenessofmorale-boostingradioshows1970sonward–usedbymarketresearchers1980sonward–usedbyacademicsTranscriptofdiscussionisthedataPlusaccompanyingnotesUsecontentanalysisorgroundedtheoryapproachtoanalyzethedata第二十一頁，共33頁。FocusGroupInterviews(cont’d)Strengths:Open-endedquestionSpontaneouslydealwithissuesastheyariseCost-effectivemethodofcollectingdataLesstime-consumingWeaknesses:OneortwoparticipantsmaydominateNotdoneinanaturalsetting,solittle“observation”tohelpunderstandtheexperienceoftheparticipants第二十二頁，共33頁。TelephoneInterviewsAdvantages:Comboofface-to-facepersonalqualitywithimpersonalself-administeredquestionnairesInexpensiveandconvenient(maybe)Safeforinterviewers第二十三頁，共33頁。TelephoneInterviews,cont.Disadvantages:Changingdemographics–morecellphones?MaymisscertainpopulationsegmentsSurveymustbeshortorpeoplewillhangup“NoCallLists”presentingincreasingchallenge第二十四頁，共33頁。Methodtoenhancethevalidity&reliabilityofqualitativeresearchEnhancesaccuracyofinterpretationConfirmsthatthedatacollectedisnotduetochanceorcircum-stancesQualitativeResearchMethods:

Triangulation第二十五頁，共33頁。CollectdatafrommultiplesourcesCollectdatainmultiplewaysfromsubjectsCollectdifferentkindsofdatainmultiplewaysfrommultiplesubjectsForexample:Mayinterviewteachers,principals&parentsMayinterview&observestudentsMayreviewstudentrecords,interviewteachers,observestudentsQualitativeResearchMethods:

Triangulation第二十六頁，共33頁。MultipledatasourcesMultiplekindsofdataMultipledatacollectionstrategiesSubjects(datasources)DatacollectionstrategiesKindsofdataQualitativeResearchMethods:

Triangulation第二十七頁，共33頁。MixingMethods/Qual-quantThreepurposes(Sandelowski):Triangulation–convergentvalidationComplementarity–clarify,explain,elaborateDevelopment–guideadditionaldatacollection第二十八頁，共33頁。Resources

(Kuh&Andreas,1991)

RecordingdevicesTranscribingequipmentSoftwarepackagesforanal