國(guó)外組織行為學(xué)課件皮爾森ch07課件

Chapter

7

/

Slide

11.

Definegroups

anddistinguishbetweenformal

andinformal

groups.3.

Explainhowgroupsizeandmemberdiversityinfluencewhatoccursingroups.Chapter

7

/

Slide

2Learning

Objectives

(continued)5.

Discussthecausesandconsequencesof6.

Explainthedynamicsof

social

loafing.Chapter

7

/

Slide

3Learning

Objectives

(continued)7.

Discusshowtodesignandsupport

self-managed

teams.9.

Understand

virtual

teams

andwhatmakesChapter

7

/

Slide

4?

Interactionisthemostbasicaspectofagroup.?

Interdependencemeansthatgroupmembersrelytosomedegreeoneachothertoaccomplishgoals.Chapter

7

/

Slide

5?

Whyisgroupmembershipimportant?–

Groupsexertinfluenceonus.–

Groupsprovideacontextinwhich

we

areabletoexertinfluenceon

others.Chapter

7

/

Slide

6?

Formal

work

groups

aregroupsthatareestablishedbyorganizationstofacilitatetheachievementoforganizationalgoals.?

Themostcommonformalgroupconsistsofamanagerandtheemployeeswhoreporttothemanager.?

Othertypesofformalworkgroups:–

Taskforces–

CommitteesChapter

7

/

Slide

7?

Theyareseldomsanctionedbytheorganization.?

Informalgroupscaneitherhelporhurtanorganization,dependingontheirnormsforbehaviour.Chapter

7

/

Slide

8?

Groupsarecomplexsocialdevices.?

Theyrequireafairamountofnegotiationandtrial-and-errorbeforeindividualmembersbegintofunctionasatruegroup.?

Howdogroupsdevelop?Chapter

7

/

Slide

9?

Groupsdevelopthroughaseriesofstagesovertime.?

Eachstagepresentsthememberswithaseriesofchallengestheymustmastertoachievethenextstage.?

Thestagesmodelisagoodtoolformonitoringandtroubleshootinghowgroupsaredeveloping.Chapter

7

/

Slide

10TypicalStagesofGroupDevelopment(continued)?

Notallgroupsgothroughthesestages.?

Theprocessappliesmainlytonewgroupsthathavenevermetbefore.Chapter

7

/

Slide

11Chapter

7

/

Slide

12?

Groupmemberstrytoorientthemselvesby“testingthewaters.”?

Thesituationisoftenambiguous,andmembersareawareoftheirdependencyoneachother.Chapter

7

/

Slide

13?

Conflictoftenemergesatthisstage.?

Confrontationandcriticismoccurasmembersdeterminewhethertheywillgoalongwiththewaythegroupisdeveloping.?

Sortingoutrolesandresponsibilitiesisoftenatissue.Chapter

7

/

Slide

14?

Compromiseisoftennecessary.?

Informationandopinionsflowfreely.Chapter

7

/

Slide

15?

Achievement,creativity,andmutualassistanceareprominentthemesatthisstage.Chapter

7

/

Slide

16?

Ritesandritualsthataffirmthegroup’sprevioussuccessfuldevelopmentarecommon.Chapter

7

/

Slide

17?

Amodelofgroupdevelopmentthatdescribeshowgroupswithdeadlinesareaffectedbytheirfirstmeetingsandcrucialmidpointtransitions.?

Equilibrium

meansstability.?

Doesthesequencesoundfamiliartoyou?Chapter

7

/

Slide

18?

Thefirstmeetingiscriticalinsettingtheagendaforwhatwillhappenintheremainderofthephase.?

Thegroupmakeslittlevisibleprogresstowardthegoal.Chapter

7

/

Slide

19?

Thetransitionmarksachangeinthegroup’sapproach.?

Thistransitioncrystallizesthegroup’sactivitiesforPhase2.Chapter

7

/

Slide

20?

Itconcludeswithafinalmeetingthatrevealsaburstofactivityandaconcernforhowoutsiderswillevaluatetheproduct.Chapter

7

/

Slide

21ThePunctuatedEquilibriumModelofGroupDevelopmentforTwoGroupsChapter

7

/

Slide

22–

Preparecarefullyforthefirstmeeting.–

Aslongaspeopleareworking,donotlookforradicalprogressduringPhase1.–

Managethemidpointtransitioncarefully.–

BesurethatadequateresourcesareavailabletoactuallyexecutethePhase2plan.–

Resistdeadlinechanges.Chapter

7

/

Slide

23?

Group

structure

referstothecharacteristicsofthestablesocialorganizationofagroup-thewayagroupis“puttogether.”?

Themostbasicstructuralcharacteristicsalongwhichgroupsvaryaresizeandmemberdiversity.Chapter

7

/

Slide

24?

Inpractice,mostworkgroups,includingtaskforcesandcommittees,usuallyhavebetween3and20members.Chapter

7

/

Slide

25?

Membersoflargergroupsconsistentlyreportlesssatisfactionwithgroupmembershipthanthoseinsmallergroups.?

Chancetoworkonanddevelopfriendshipsdecreaseassizeincreases.Chapter

7

/

Slide

26?

Manypeopleareinhibitedaboutparticipatinginlargergroups.?

Inlargegroups,individualmembersidentifylesseasilywiththesuccessandaccomplishmentsofthegroup.Chapter

7

/

Slide

27?

Dolargegroupsperformtasksbetterthansmallgroups??

Therelationshipbetweengroupsizeandperformancedependsonthetaskthegroupneedstoaccomplishandonhowwedefinegoodperformance.?

Typesoftasks:–

Additivetasks–

Disjunctivetasks–

ConjunctivetasksChapter

7

/

Slide

28?

Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceisdependentonthesumoftheperformanceofindividualgroupmembers.?

Foradditivetasks,thepotentialperformanceofthegroupincreaseswithgroupsize.Chapter

7

/

Slide

29?

Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceisdependentontheperformanceofthebestgroupmember.Chapter

7

/

Slide

30?

Groupperformancedifficultiesstemmingfromtheproblemsofmotivatingandcoordinatinglargergroups.?

Asgroupsperformingtasksgetbigger,theytendtosufferfromprocesslosses.?

Problemsofcommunicationanddecisionmakingincreasewithsize.Chapter

7

/

Slide

31Chapter

7

/

Slide

32Chapter

7

/

Slide

33Chapter

7

/

Slide

34?

Potentialperformanceandprocesslossesincreasewithgroupsizeforadditiveanddisjunctivetasks.?

Actualperformanceincreaseswithsizeuptoapointandthenfallsoff.?

Theaverage

performanceofgroupmembersChapter

7

/

Slide

35?

Thus,uptoapoint,largergroupsmightperformbetterasgroups,buttheirindividualmemberstendtobelessefficient.Chapter

7

/

Slide

36?

Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceislimitedbytheperformanceofthepoorestgroupmember.?

Boththepotentialandactualperformanceofconjunctivetaskswoulddecreaseasgroupsizeincreases.Chapter

7

/

Slide

37?

Foradditiveanddisjunctivetasks,largergroupsmightperformbetteruptoapointbutatincreasingcoststotheefficiencyofindividualmembers.?

Performanceonpurelyconjunctivetasksshoulddecreaseasgroupsizeincreases.Chapter

7

/

Slide

38?

Diversegroupsmighttakelongertodotheirforming,storming,andnorming.Chapter

7

/

Slide

39?

Diversegroupssometimesperformbetterwhenthetaskrequirescognitive,creativity-?

Ingeneral,anynegativeeffectsof“surfacediversity”inage,gender,orraceseemtowearoffovertime.Chapter

7

/

Slide

40?

Socialnormsarecollectiveexpectationsthatmembersofsocialunitshaveregardingthebehaviourofeachother.?

Theyarecodesofconductthatspecifythestandardsagainstwhichweevaluatetheappropriatenessofbehaviour.?

Mostnormativeinfluenceisunconscious;weareonlyawareofitinspecialcircumstances.Chapter

7

/

Slide

41?

Normsdevelopaboutbehavioursthatareatleastmarginallyimportanttotheirsupporters.?

How

donormsdevelop??

Sharedattitudesamongmembersofagroupformthebasisfornorms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

42?

Whydoindividualscomplywithnorms?–

Thenormcorrespondstoprivatelyheldattitudes.–

Theyoftensavetimeandpreventsocialconfusion.–

Groupshavearangeofrewardsandpunishmentsavailabletoinduceconformitytonorms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

43–

Dressnorms–

PerformancenormsChapter

7

/

Slide

44?

Positionsinagroupthathaveasetofexpectedbehavioursattachedtothem.?

Rolesrepresent“packages”ofnormsthatapplytoparticulargroupmembers.?

Therearetwobasickindsofrolesinorganizations:–

Assignedroles–

EmergentrolesChapter

7

/

Slide

45?

Role

ambiguity

existswhenthegoalsofone’sjoborthemethodsofperformingitareunclear.?

Thereareavarietyofelementsthatcanleadtoroleambiguity:–

Organizationalfactors–

Therolesender–

ThefocalpersonChapter

7

/

Slide

46Chapter

7

/

Slide

47RoleAmbiguity(continued)?

Managerscanreduceroleambiguitybyprovidingclearperformanceexpectationsandperformancefeedback.Chapter

7

/

Slide

48?

Role

conflict

existswhenanindividualisfaced?

Therearefourtypesofroleconflict:–

Intrasenderroleconflict–

Intersenderroleconflict–

Interroleconflict–

Person-roleconflictChapter

7

/

Slide

49IntrasenderRoleConflict?

Asinglerolesenderprovidesincompatibleroleexpectationstoaroleoccupant.?

Thistypeofroleconflictisespeciallylikelytoalsoprovokeambiguity.Chapter

7

/

Slide

50?

Employeeswhostraddletheboundarybetweentheorganizationanditsclientsorcustomersareespeciallylikelytoencounterthisformofconflict.?

Itcanalsostemfromwithintheorganization.Chapter

7

/

Slide

51?

Competingdemandsforone’stimeareafrequentsymptomofinterroleconflict.Chapter

7

/

Slide

52?

Roledemandscallforbehaviourthatisincompatiblewiththepersonalityorskillsofaroleoccupant.?

Manyexamplesof“whistle-blowing”aresignalsofperson-roleconflict.?

Theorganizationhasdemandedsomerolebehaviourthattheoccupantconsidersunethical.Chapter

7

/

Slide

53?

Themostconsistentconsequencesofroleconflictarejobdissatisfaction,stressreactions,loweredorganizationalcommitment,andturnoverintentions.Chapter

7

/

Slide

54RoleConflict(continued)Chapter

7

/

Slide

55?

Status

intherank,socialposition,orprestige?

Itrepresentsthegroup’s

evaluation

ofa?

What

isevaluateddependsonthestatussystem?

Allorganizationshavebothformalandinformalstatussystems.Chapter

7

/

Slide

56FormalStatusSystems?

Representsmanagement’sattempttopubliclyidentifythosepeoplewhohavehigherstatusthanothers.?

Status

symbols

aretangibleindicatorsofstatus?

Formalorganizationstatusisbasedonseniorityinone’sgroupandone’sassignedroleintheorganization–one’sjob.Chapter

7

/

Slide

57FormalStatusSystems(continued)–

Reinforcestheauthorityhierarchyinworkgroupsandintheorganizationasawhole.Chapter

7

/

Slide

58InformalStatusSystems?

Suchsystemsarenotwelladvertised,andtheymightlacktheconspicuoussymbolsandsystematicsupportthatpeopleusuallyaccordtheformalsystem.?

Theycanoperatejustaseffectivelyasformalstatussystems.?

Informalstatusislinkedtojobperformanceaswellasotherfactorssuchasgenderorrace.Chapter

7

/

Slide

59ConsequencesofStatusDifferences?

Mostpeopleliketocommunicatewithothersattheirownstatusorhigher,ratherthanwithpeoplewhoarebelowthem.?

Tendencyforcommunicationtomoveupthestatushierarchy.?

Ifstatusdifferencesarelarge,peoplecanbeinhibitedfromcommunicatingupward.Chapter

7

/

Slide

60?

Becausetheyinhibitthefreeflowofcommunication,manyorganizationsdownplaystatusdifferentiationbydoingawaywithstatussymbols.?

Thegoalistofosteracultureofteamworkandcooperationacrosstheranks.?

Emailseemstohaveleveledstatusbarriers.Chapter

7

/

Slide

61?

Cohesivenessisarelative,ratherthanabsolute,propertyofgroups.Chapter

7

/

Slide

62FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness?

Whatmakessomegroupsmorecohesivethanothers??

Threat

and

Competition–

Externalthreattothesurvivalofthegroupincreasescohesiveness.–

Honestcompetitionwithanothergroupcanalsopromotecohesiveness.Chapter

7

/

Slide

63FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)–

Cohesivenesswilldecreaseafterfailure.–

Groupsthataremorediversecanhaveahardertimebecomingcohesive.–

Ifthereisagreementabouthowtoaccomplishatask,itssuccesswilloftenoutweighsurfacedissimilarityindeterminingcohesiveness.Chapter

7

/

Slide

64Competition,Success,andCohesivenessChapter

7

/

Slide

65FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)?

Size–

Largergroupshaveamoredifficulttimebecomingandstayingcohesive.–

Largegroupshaveamoredifficulttimeagreeingongoalsandmoreproblemscommunicatingandcoordinatingeffortstoachievethosegoals.Chapter

7

/

Slide

66FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued)?

Toughness

of

Initiation–

Groupsthataretoughtogetintotendtobemoreattractivethanthosethatareeasytojoin.Chapter

7

/

Slide

67Chapter

7

/

Slide

68?

More

Participation

in

Group

Activities–

ThereismoreparticipationincohesivegroupsintermsoflowervoluntaryturnoverandChapter

7

/

Slide

69?

More

Conformity–

Highlycohesivegroupsareabletoinducegreaterconformitytogroupnorms.–

Membersofcohesivegroupsareespeciallymotivatedtoengageinactivitiesthatwill

keepthegroupcohesive.–

Canapplypressuretodeviantstogetthemtocomplywithgroupnorms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

70–

Cohesivenesscontributestogroupsuccess.–

Cohesivegroupsaregoodatachievingtheirgoals.–

Groupcohesivenessisrelatedtoperformance.–

Thereisareciprocalrelationshipbetweensuccessandcohesiveness.–

Whyarecohesivegroupseffectiveatgoalaccomplishment?Chapter

7

/

Slide

71?

Inhighlycohesivegroups,theproductivityofindividualgroupmembersissimilartoothermembers;inlesscohesivegroups,thereismorevariationinproductivity.?

Highlycohesivegroupstendtobe

more

orlessproductivethanlesscohesivegroups,dependingonanumberofvariables.?

Cohesivenessismorelikelytopayoffwhenthetaskrequiresmoreinterdependence.Chapter

7

/

Slide

72HypotheticalProductivityCurvesForGroupsVaryinginCohesivenessChapter

7

/

Slide

73intellectualeffortwhenperformingagrouptask.?

Socialloafingisamotivationproblem.?

ThetendencyforsocialloafingisprobablymorepronouncedinindividualisticNorthAmericathaninmorecollectiveandgroup-orientedcultures.?

Socialloafinghastwodifferentforms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

74TheFreeRiderEffect?

Inthefree

rider

effect,peoplelowertheirefforttogetafreerideattheexpenseoftheirfellowgroupmembers.Chapter

7

/

Slide

75?

Inthesucker

effect,peoplelowertheireffortbecauseofthefeelingthatothersarefreeriding.?

Theyaretryingtorestoreequityinthegroup.?

Whataresomewaystocounteractsocialloafing?Chapter

7

/

Slide

76?

Make

sure

that

the

work

is

interesting–

Ifworkisinvolving,intrinsicmotivationshouldcounteractsocialloafing.?

Increase

feelings

of

indispensabilityChapter

7

/

Slide

77?

Increase

performance

feedback–

Increasefeedbackfromtheboss,peers,andcustomers.?

Reward

group

performance–

Membersaremorelikelytomonitorandmaximizetheirownperformanceandthatoftheircolleagueswhenthegroupreceivesrewardsforeffectiveness.Chapter

7

/

Slide

78?

Theterm“team”isgenerallyusedtodescribe“groups”inorganizationalsettings.?

TeamshavebecomeamajorbuildingblockoforganizationsandarenowquitecommoninNorthAmerica.?

Researchhasshownimprovementsinorganizationalperformanceintermsofbothefficiencyandqualityasaresultofteam-basedworkarrangements.Chapter

7

/

Slide

79?

Whenitcomestoteams,collectiveefficacyisimportanttoensurehighperformance.Chapter

7

/

Slide

80?

AccordingtoJ.RichardHackman,aworkgroupiseffectivewhen:–

Itsphysicalorintellectualoutputisacceptabletomanagementandtootherpartsoftheorganizationthatusethisoutput.–

Groupmembers’needsaresatisfiedratherthanfrustratedbythegroup.–

ThegroupexperienceenablesmemberstoChapter

7

/

Slide

81?

Groupeffectivenessoccurswhen:–

Higheffortisdirectedtowardthegroup’stask.–

Whengreatknowledgeandskillaredirectedtowardthetask.–

Whenthegroupadoptssensiblestrategiesforaccomplishingitsgoals.?

Onewaytodesigngroupstobemoreeffectiveistomakethemself-managedworkteams.Chapter

7

/

Slide

82Self-ManagedWorkTeams(SMWTs)?

Criticalsuccessfactorsofself-managedteamsinclude:–

Thenatureofthetask.–

Thecompositionofthegroup.–

Varioussupportmechanisms.Chapter

7

/

Slide

83?

Thetasksshouldhavethequalitiesofenrichedjobs.Chapter

7

/

Slide

84?

Stability–

Groupmembershipshouldbefairlystable.?

Size?

Expertise–

Groupmembersshouldhaveahighlevelofexpertiseaboutthetaskathandaswellassocialskills.Chapter

7

/

Slide

85?

Diversity–

Groupmembersshouldbesimilarenoughtoworkwelltogetheranddiverseenoughtobringavarietyofperspectivesandskillstothetaskathand.–

Onewayofmaintainingappropriategroupcompositionistoletthegroupchooseitsownmembers.Chapter

7

/

Slide

86?

Reportsofproblemswithteamscanusuallybetracedbacktoinadequatesupport.Chapter

7

/

Slide

87?

Training?

Rewards–

Rewardsshouldbetiedtoteamaccomplishmentratherthantoindividualaccomplishmentwhilestillprovidingteammemberswithsomeindividualperformancefeedback.Chapter

7

/

Slide

88?

Management–

Managementshouldmediaterelations

betweenteams,dealwithunionconcerns,andcoachteamstobeindependent.Chapter

7

/

Slide

89Chapter

7

/

Slide

90ResearchonWorkGroupEffectiveness?

Taskcharacteristicsarerelatedtomostmeasuresofgroupeffectiveness.?

Teamsperceivedastoolargefortheirtasksratedaslesseffectivethanteamsperceivedasanappropriatesizeortoosmall.?

Managerialsupportrelatedtomanymeasuresofeffectivenessandisoneofthebestpredictorsofgroupperformance.Chapter

7

/

Slide

91ResearchonWorkGroupEffectiveness(continued)Chapter

7

/

Slide

92?

Workgroupsthatbringpeoplewithdifferentfunctionalspecialtiestogethertobetterinvent,design,ordeliveraproductorservice.?

Bestknownfortheirsuccessinproductdevelopment.Chapter

7

/

Slide

93?

Thegeneralgoalsofusingcross-functionalteamsincludesomecombinationofinnovation,speed,andqualitythatcomefromearlycoordinationamongthevariousspecialties.?

Cross-functionalteamsgetallofthespecialtiesworkingtogetherfromdayone.Chapter

7

/

Slide

94–

Allrelevantspecialtiesarenecessaryandmustbeincluded.?

Superordinate

goals–

Attractiveoutcomesthatcanonlybeachievedbycollaboration;theymustoverridefunctionalobjectives.Chapter

7

/

Slide

95?

Physical

proximity–

Teammembershavetobelocatedclosetoeachothertofacilitateinformalcontact.?

Autonomy–

Cross-functionalteamsneedsomeautonomyfromthelargerorganization.–

Functionalspecialistsneedsomeauthoritytocommittheirfunctiontoprojectdecisions.Chapter

7

/

Slide

96–

Somebasicdecisionproceduresmustbelaiddowntopreventanarchy.?

Leadership–

Cross-functionalteamleadersneedespeciallystrongpeopleskillsinadditiontotaskexpertise.Chapter

7

/

Slide

97?

Teammembersneedtosharementalmodels.?

Shared

mental

models

meanthatteammembersshareidenticalinformationabouthowtheyshouldinteractandwhattheirtaskis.?

Theyareaparticularchallengetoinstillincross-functionalteams.Chapter

7

/

Slide

98Chapter

7

/

Slide

99VirtualTeams(continued)?

Alongwiththerelianceoncomputerandelectronictechnology,theprimaryfeatur