當(dāng)代語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論4

Lecture4Phonology音系學(xué)4.0Coarticulation協(xié)同發(fā)音4.1Phonologicalanalysis音位分析4.2Phonemesandallophones音位與音位變體4.3PhonologicalProcesses音位過程4.4Distinctivefeatures區(qū)別性特征4.5Suprasegmentalphonology超語段音位學(xué)4.0Coarticulation協(xié)同發(fā)音Coarticulationreferstothevariationthataspeechsoundundergoesundertheinfluenceofneighbouringsounds.AnticipatorycoarticulationIfthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation（逆化協(xié)同發(fā)音）orright-to-leftcoarticulation(L<R).Thusinthestring…AB…,soundAisinfluencedbysoundB.lambPerseverativecoarticulationIfthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation（反復(fù)協(xié)同發(fā)音）orleft-to-rightcoarticulation(L>R),asinthecaseofmap.Thusinthestring…CD…,soundCinfluencessoundD.mapBroadandnarrowtrans-cription寬式音標(biāo)與窄式音標(biāo)

Nasalization[~];aspiration[h]Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledbroadtranscription(寬式音標(biāo)).Andifweusemorespecificdiacriticstoshowmorephoneticdetail,itiscallednarrowtranscription(窄式音標(biāo)).Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets[].4.1PhonologicalanalysisPhonologyisthestudyofsoundsystems,inordertoidentifythedistinctivesoundsinaparticularlanguage,andtodiscoverthepatternsthesoundsfallinto.Ithastwoprimaryaims:1)todiscovertheprinciplegoverningtheorganizationofsounds;2)toexplainthevariationsthatoccur.Thetechnicaltermforthedistinctivesoundsis“phoneme”(音位).Phoneticiansvs.phonologistsPhoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.kite[kt]vs.sky[sk]4.2Phonemesandallophones4.2.1Minimalpairs最小對(duì)立體4.2.2ThePhonemetheory音位理論4.2.3Allophones音位變體4.2.1MinimalpairsPhonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangeinthemeaningofaword,whileothersoundsdonot.Atechniquetofindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaningiscalled“minimalpairs”test.Thatis,wetakeaword,replaceonesoundbyanother,andseewhetheritresultsinadifferentmeaning.Bythistechniquewehaveidentifiedmorethan40phonemesinEnglish.Thephonemesaretranscribedusingthenormalsetofphoneticsymbols,butwithinslantlinesinsteadofsquarebrackets.4.2.2ThephonemetheoryPhonemeisatermusedtodenotethesmallestsoundunitsthatcanbesegmentedfromtheacousticflowofspeechandwhichcanfunctionassemanticallydistinctiveunits.DifferentselectionofcontrastivesoundsEnglish:[p]and[p]arenotdifferentphonemes.Chinese:[p]and[p]aredifferentphonemes,asin“波”and“潑”.4.2.3Allophones4.2.3.1Phonetictranscriptionandphonemictranscription4.2.3.2Phonesandallophones音素與音位變體4.2.3.3Freevariants自由變體4.2.3.1PhonetictranscriptionandphonemictranscriptionPhonemictranscription:peak/pik/,speak/spik/Phonetictranscription:peak[pik],speak[spik]4.2.3.2Phonesandallophones音素與音位變體PHONE-Aspeechsoundconsideredwithoutreferencetoitsstatusasaphonemeoranallophoneinalanguage.

ALLOPHONE-variantsofasamephoneme.

COMPLEMENTARYDISTRIBUTION-themutuallyexclusiverelationshipbetweentwophoneticallysimilarsegments.Itexistswhenonesegmentoccursinanenvironmentwheretheothersegmentneveroccurs.

[p,p]areincomplementarycontribution.[p]occursafter[s]while[p]occursinotherplaces./p/→[p]/[s]_____[p]elsewhere“Darkl”[]and“clearl”[l]areincomplementarydistribution./l/→[l]/____V[]/V____PhoneticsimilarityPhoneticsimilaritymeansthattheallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.Forexample,thedarkandclearlarebothlateralapproximantsandtheyonlydifferinplacesofarticulation;theaspiratedandunaspirated/p/arebothvoicelessbilabialstopsdifferingonlyinaspiration.Inbothcases,theallophonesarebothphoneticallysimilarandincomplementarydistribution.4.2.3.3Freevariants自由變體

Freevariationistheinter-changeablerelationshipbetweentwophones,inwhichthephonesmaysubstituteforoneanotherinthesameenvironmentwithoutcausingachangeinmeaning.cup:[kp]and[kp]freevariationfoundinregionaldifferenceseither[,]direct[,]4.3Phonologicalprocesses4.3.1Assimilation同化4.3.2Phonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrules音位過程與音位規(guī)則4.3.3Ruleordering4.3.1Assimilation同化Assimilationreferstotheprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighbouringsound.Therearetwopossibilitiesofassimilation:ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitREGRESSIVEASSIMILATION(逆同化);theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasPROGRESSIVEASSIMILATION(順同化).Nasalization鼻音化

a.cap[k?p]

can[k??n]

b.tap[t?p]

tan[t??n]c.lap[l?p]map[m??p]Dentalization齒音化a.tent[t?nt]

tenth[t?n?θ]

b.ninety[na?nti]

ninth[na?n?θ]Velarization腭音化a.since[s?ns]

sink[s??k]

b.mince[m?ns]

mink[m??k]Assimilationacrosssyllablesa.pan[?]cake

pan[pn]

b.sun[?]glassessun[sn]AssimilationacrosswordsDevoicing清音化f,v,θ,e,s,z,?,?,?,?fivepast

[fa?vpɑ?st]

>

[fa?fpɑ?st]loveto

[l?vt?]

>

[l?ft?]hasto

[h?zt?]

>

[h?st?]ascanbeshown

[?zk?nb????n]

>

[?sk?nb????n]losefive-nil

[lu?zfa?vn?l]

>

[lu?sfa?vn?l]edgetoedge

[??t???]

>

[??t???]4.3.2Phonologicalprocessandphonologicalrules音位過程與音位規(guī)則Phonologicalprocessisusedtorefertotheprocessinwhichasoundundergoesastructuralchangeincertainsituations.Thesoundisreferredtointechnicaltermsasatargetoraffectedsegmentwhilethesituationsaretermedenvironmentsorcontexts.Nasalization,velarizationanddentalizationareallphonologicalprocesses.Oftenwecanmakeageneralruletoindicatethephonologicalprocess.Thisruleiscalledphonologicalrule.1)Devoicingrulevoicedfricative→voiceless/_____voiceless2)Nasalizationrule

[–nasal]→[+nasal]/_____[+nasal]3)Dentalizationrule

[–dental]→[+dental]/_____[+dental]4)Velarizationrule

[–velar]→[+velar]/_____[+velar]Epenthesis(插音)?→[n]/[?]_____Vaboy[?b]anapple[npl]?→n4.3.3RuleorderingThreevariantsofthepluralforminEnglish:The[s]appearsaftervoicelesssounds.The[z]appearsaftervoicedsounds(includingallvowels).The[?z]appearsaftersibilants.a.-ztables/te?bl/stools/stu?l/

sofas/s??f?/divans/d?v?n/

wardrobes/w??dr??b/beds/b?d/

rugs/r?g/cushions/k??n/

pillows/p?l??/cupboards/k?b?d/

b.-sseats/si?t/quilts/kw?lt/

hammocks/h?m?k/bunks/b??k/

c.-?zbenches/b?n?/couches/ka??/

mattresses/m???s/cases/ke?s/

bridges/br??/ashes/??/URandSRWesay/z/isthebasicformofthepluralandtheothertwoarederivedfromit.Thebasicformisknownasunderlyingform(底層形式)orunderlyingrepresentation(UR)(底層體現(xiàn)).Thederivedformisthesurfaceform(表層形式)orsurfacerepresentation(SR)(表層體現(xiàn)).Therefore/s/isobtainedthroughaprocessofdevoicingand/?z/isacaseofepenthesis./z/?[s]/[–voice,C]_____(Devoicing)??[?]/[+sibilant]_____[z](Epenthesis)

//sit+z////bd+z////kes+z//DevoicingsN/AsEpenthesisN/AN/AN/AOutputsitsbedzkess

//sit+z////bd+z////kes+z//EpenthesisN/AN/A?DevoicingsN/AN/AOutputsitsbedzkes?zTheElsewhereconditionThisruleorderingishowevernotalwaysneeded,asitfallstoamuchmoregeneralruleoflanguage,theELSEWHERECONDITION,statedsimplyasTheElsewhereCondition

Themorespecificruleappliesfirst.WiththeElsewhereCondition,itisnotnecessarytodiscusstheruleorderingeverytimeitoccurs.4.4Distinctivefeatures區(qū)別性特征TheideaofDISTINCTIVEFEATURESwasfirstdevelopedbyRomanJacobson(1896-1982)inthe1940sasameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds.Distinctivefeatureisaminimalcontrastiveunitinphonologicalanalysis,i.e.,acomponentofthephoneme,whichisfunctionaltothedifferentiationofphonemesinalanguage.Aphonemecanthusbesummedasthetotalnumberofthedistinctivefeatures.

Someofthemajordistinctionsinclude[consonantal],[sonorant],[nasal]and[voiced].Thefeature[consonantal]candistinguishbetweenconsonantsandvowels,soallconsonantsare[+consonantal]andallvowels[–consonantal].[sonorant]distinguishesbetweenwhatwecallOBSTRUENTS(阻塞音)(stops,fricativesandaffricates)andsonorants（響音）(allotherconsonantsandvowels),withobstruentsbeing[–sonorant]andothers[+sonorant].[nasal]and[voiced]ofcoursedistinguishnasal(includingnasalized)soundsandvoicedsoundsrespectively.

TheseareknownasBINARYFEATURESbecausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.Binaryfeatureshavetwovaluesorspecificationsdenotedby“+”and“–”sovoicedobstruentsaremarked[+voiced]andvoicelessobstruentsaremarked[–voiced].PlacefeaturesTheplacefeaturesarenotbinaryfeatures–theyaredividedupintofourvalues:[PLACE:Labial],[PLACE:Coronal],[PLACE:Dorsal],and[PLACE:Radical],whichareoftenwritteninshorthandformsas[Labial]p,[Coronal]p,[Dorsal]p,and[Radical]p.

FeaturespecificationsforEnglishconsonantphonemes.[±spread]foraspirationandunaspirationTheregularpasttenseformsinEnglisha.stopped,walked,coughed,kissed,leashed,reachedb.stabbed,wagged,achieved,buzzed,soothed,bridged

c.steamed,stunned,pulled

d.played,flowed,studied

e.wanted,located,decided,guidedThepasttenseruleinEnglishTheregularpasttenseforminEnglishispronouncedas[t]whenthewordendswithavoicelessconsonant,[d]whenitendswithavoicedsound,and[d]whenitendswith[t]or[d].4.5Suprasegmentalfeatures超語段特征SUPRASEGMENTALFEATURESarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.4.5.1ThesyllablestructureTheSYLLABLEisanimportantunitinthestudyofsuprasegmentals.InEnglish,awordmaybeMONOSYLLABIC(withonesyllable,likecatanddog)orPOLYSYLLABIC(withmorethanonesyllable,liketransplantorfestival).4.5.1.1Nucleus/Peak節(jié)核/節(jié)峰

AsyllablemusthaveaNUCLEUSorPEAK,whichisoftenthetaskofavowel.However,sometimesitisalsopossibleforaconsonanttoplaythepartofanucleus：table[tb|]bottom[]cotton[]4.5.1.2Rhyme,onsetandcoda韻，節(jié)首輔音和節(jié)尾Opensyllable:

bar,tieClosedsyllable:

bard,tiedEnglishSyllable:(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Chinesesyllable:(C)V(C)MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP)Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.4.5.1.3Sonorityscale響音階spring,student,square,splits+plosives+approximantsTheclustermustbeformedthiswaybecauseasonorityscaleisatwork.Thatistosay,differentkindsofconsonantshavedifferentdegreeofsonorityandthatwillaffecttheirpositioninasyllable.Mostsonorous5Vowels4Approximants3Nasals2FricativesLeastsonorous1StopsClaspklsp5*4*32*1***lpakslpks5*4*32*1**4.5.2Stress重音Stressistheprominenceofasyllableresultingfromagreatereffortinitspronunciationincomparisonwithothers.Thereareusuallytwotypesofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Wordstressreferstothestressedsyllableinawordwhenthewordispronouncedinisolation.Thereisnowordstressinmonosyllabicwords.Onlypolysyllabicwordswillhavewordstress,whichisrepresentedbyaraisedshortline[].Inwordsofmorethan3syllables,wemayneedtohaveaprimarystressandasecondarystressrepresentedbyaloweredshortline[].wonderful[]modernization[]TwotypesofstressFixedstress–thestressalwaysfallsonthesamesyllable.Forexample,inHungarian,thefirst;Turkish,thelast;Polish,thelastbutone.Freestress–thepositionofstressisvariable;itmayfallonanysyllable,e.g.English.ChangeinstressoverhistorybecomingnormconservativeintegralintegralcommunalcommunalformidableformidablecontroversycontroversyRegionaldifferenceinstressRPGAlaboratorylaboratorydebrisdebrisgaragegarageDifferentstresswithdifferent

grammaticalfunctionsnounverb

insultinsult

produceproduce