醫(yī)學(xué)遺傳學(xué)基因的群體行為

醫(yī)學(xué)遺傳學(xué)基因的群體行為第一頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二第二頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二第三頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Whatisapopulationfromageneticperspective?

Apopulationinthegeneticsense,isnotjustagroupofindividuals,butabreedinggroup第四頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Thegeneticsofapopulationisconcernednotonlywiththegeneticconstitutionoftheindividualsbutalsowiththetransmissionofthegenesfromonegenerationtothenext.第五頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Inthetransmissionthegenotypesoftheparentsarebrokendownandanewsetofgenotypesisconstitutedintheprogeny,fromthegenestransmittedinthegametes.Thegenescarriedbythepopulationthushavecontinuityfromgenerationtogeneration,butthegenotypesinwhichtheyappeardonot.Thegeneticconstitutionofapopulation,referringtothegenesitcarries,isdescribedbythearrayofgenefrequencies,thatisbyspecificationoftheallelespresentateverylocusandthenumbersorproportionsofthedifferentallelesateachlocus."第六頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二GoalsofPopulationGenetics

Todescribehowthefrequencyofanallelewhichcontrolsatraitchangesovertime；Toanalyzethefactorsthatleadtochangesingene(allele)frequencies；Todeterminehowchangesingene(allele)frequenciesaffectevolutionandspeciation.第七頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二WhyStudyPopulationsandGeneFrequencies

Geneticvariabilitynecessaryforevolutionarysuccess;Measuringgeneticvariabilityatmanylocicancharacterizeapopulation;Variabilityofphenotypicandmoleculartraitsareanalyzed.第八頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二1.VariabilityandGene(orAllelic)Frequencies

Geneticdataforapopulationcanbeexpressedasgeneorallelicfrequencies;Allgeneshaveatleasttwoalleles;Summationofalltheallelicfrequenciesforapopulationcanbeconsideredadescriptionofthepopulation;Frequenciescanvarywidelyamongtheallelesinapopulation;Twopopulationsofthesamespeciesdonothavetohavethesameallelicfrequencies.第九頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二GenotypicfrequenciesItdescribesthedistributionofgenotypesinapopulation.

第十頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Example

Bloodtypelocus;twoalleles,MorN,andthreeMM,MN,NNgenotypesarepossible(thefollowingdatawascollectedfromasinglehumanpopulation).第十一頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Genotye#ofIndividualsGenotypicFrequenciesMM

1787MM=1787/6129=0.289MN

3039MN=3039/6129=0.50NN

1303NN=1303/6129=0.21Total6129第十二頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二DerivingGene(orAllelic)FrequenciesTodeterminetheallelicfrequencieswesimplycountthenumberofMorNallelesanddividebythetotalnumberofalleles.

f(M)=[(2x1787)+3039]/12,258=0.5395

f(N)=[(2x1303)+3039]/12,258=0.4605

Byconventiononeoftheallelesisgiventhedesignationpandtheotherq.Alsop+q=1.

p=0.5395andq=0.4605

Furthermore,apopulationisconsideredbypopulationgeneticiststobepolymorphiciftwoallelesaresegregatingandthefrequencyofthemostfrequentalleleislessthan0.99.第十三頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二DerivingallelicfrequenciesfromgenotypicfrequenciesThefollowingexamplewillillustratehowtocalculateallelicfrequenciesfromgenotypicfrequencies.Itwillalsodemonstratethattwodifferentpopulationsfromthesamespeciesdonothavetohavethesameallelicfrequencies.第十四頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Let:p=f(M)andq=f(N)Thus:p=f(MM)+?

f(MN)andq=f(NN)+?

f(MN)..PercentAllelicFrequenciesLocationMM

MN

NN

p

q

Greenland83.515.6

0.900.9130.087Iceland31.251.517.300.5690.431第十五頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Sotheresultsoftheabovedataare:Greenland:p=0.835+?(0.156)=0.913andq=0.009+?(0.156)=0.087

Iceland:p=0.312+?(0.515)=0.569andq=0.173+?(0.515)=0.431Clearlytheallelicfrequenciesvarybetweenthesepopulations.

第十六頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二2.TheHardy-WeinbergLawTheHardy-WeinbergLawTheunifyingconceptofpopulationgeneticsNamedafterthetwoscientistswhosimultaneouslydiscoveredthelawThelawpredictshowgenefrequencieswillbetransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationgivenaspecificsetofassumptions.第十七頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二If

aninfinitelylarge,randommatingpopulationisfreefromoutsideevolutionaryforces(i.e.mutation,migrationandnaturalselection),then

thegenefrequencieswillnotchangeovertime,andthefrequenciesinthenextgenerationwillbe:

p2forthe

AAgenotype

2pqfortheAagenotype,and

q2fortheaagenotype.第十八頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Let'sexaminetheassumptionsandconclusionsinmoredetailstartingfirstwiththeassumptions.第十九頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二A.Infinitelylargepopulation

Nosuchpopulationactuallyexists.Theeffectthatisofconcernisgeneticdrift(achangeingenefrequencythatistheresultofchancedeviationfromexpectedgenotypicfrequencies)aprobleminsmallpopulations.第二十頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二B.Randommating

Randommating-matingsinapopulationthatoccurinproportiontotheirallelicfrequencies.第二十一頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Forexample,iftheallelicfrequenciesinapopulationare:f(M)=0.91

f(N)=0.09thentheprobabilityofMMindividualsoccurringis0.91x0.91=0.828.Ifasignificantdeviationoccurred,thenrandommatingdidnothappeninthispopulation.第二十二頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二Withinapopulation,randommatingcanbeoccurringatsomelocibutnotatothers.Examplesofrandommatingloci-bloodtype,RFLPpatternsExamplesofnon-randommatingloci-intelligence,physicalstature第二十三頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二C.Noevolutionaryforcesaffectingthepopulation

Theprincipalforcesare:MutationMigrationSelectionSomelociinapopulationmaybeaffectedbytheseforces,andothersmaynot;thoselocinotaffectedbytheforcescanbyanalyzedasaHardy-Weinbergpopulation第二十四頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二MathematicalDerivationoftheHardy-WeinbergLaw

IfpequalsthefrequencyofalleleAinapopulationandqisthefrequencyofalleleainthesamepopulation,unionofgameteswouldoccurwiththefollowinggenotypicfrequencies:第二十五頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二*Thegameteandoffspringgenotypesareinparentheses.Fromthetable,itisclearthatthepredictionregardinggenotypicfrequenciesafteronegenerationofrandommatingiscorrect.

Thatis:

AA=p2;Aa=2pq;andaa=q2

FemaleGametes*

p

(A)q

(a)Male

Gametesp

(A)p2

(AA)pq

(Aa)q

(a)pq

(Aa)q2

(aa)第二十六頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二PredictionregardingstabilityofgenefrequenciesThefollowingisamathematicalproofofthesecondprediction.Todeterminetheallelicfrequency,theycanbederivedfromthegenotypicfrequenciesasshownabove.p=f(AA)+?f(Aa)(substitutefromthetableonpreviouspage)p=p2+?(2pq)(factoroutpanddivide)p=p(p+q)(p+q=1;thereforeq=1-p;makethissubstitution)p=p[p+(1-p)](subtractandmultiply)p=p

第二十七頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二EvolutionaryGenetics

TheHardy-WeinbergLawdescribedapopulationthatexistsingeneticequilibriumwhereallelicfrequenciesdonotchangefromgenerationtogeneration.Forevolutionofapopulationtooccur,thegenefrequenciesofthatpopulationmustundergochange.Severalfactorscanacttochangefitnessortheabilitytomaintainallelicfrequencies.Viability-abilitytosurviveFertility-abilitytoreproduceByalteringthefitnessofanindividual,thematingdistributionwillchange,andconsequentlytheallelicfrequencieswillchangeandthepopulationwillevolve.第二十八頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二3.FactorsthatAffectStabilityofGeneFrequenciesMutationClassifiedasbeneficial,harmfulorneutral;Canoccurbypointmutations;orsmallinsertionsordeletionsofthenucleotidesequence;Harmfulmutationsarelostiftheyreducefitness;Iffitnessisimprovedbyamutation,thenthefrequencyofthatallelewillincreasefromgenerationtogeneration;Themutationcouldbeachangeinonealleletoresembleonecurrentlyinthepopulation,forexamplefromadominanttoarecessiveallele;第二十九頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二6Themutationcouldgenerateanentirelynewallele.Mostofthesemutationsthoughwillbedetrimentalandlost.Iftheenvironmentchanges,thenewmutantallelemaybefavoredandeventuallybecomethedominantalelleinthatpopulation.Ifthemutationisbeneficialtothespeciesasawhole,migrationmustoccurforittospreadtootherpopulationsofthespecies.7Geneduplicationfavormutationalevents.Theduplicatedgenecanundergomutationstogenerateanewgenethathasasimilar,butaslightlymodifiedfunctionfortheorganism.Thistypeofevolutiongeneratesmultigenefamilies.(Examples:hemoglobinandmusclegenesinhumans,andseedstorageandphotosyntheticgenesinplants)

第三十頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二B.Migration

TheHardy-WeinbergLawassumesthepopulationisclosed.Butformanypopulationsthisisnotthecase.Migrationwillchangegenefrequenciesbybringinginmorecopiesofanallelealreadyinthepopulationorbybringinginanewallelethathasarisenbymutation.Becausemutationsdonotoccurineverypopulation,migrationwillberequiredforthatalleletospreadthroughoutthatspecies.

第三十一頁，共三十三頁，編輯于2023年，星期二4.Inageneticcontext,migrationrequirestheintroductionofnewallelesintothepopulation.Thiswillonlyoc