越南基建投資機會

The

InfrastructureOpportunity

in

Viet

Nam1Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryForewordExecutive

SummaryParametersFOREWORDItisestimated

that

the

country

isin

needof

approximately

$68bnof

investment

forthe

development

of

its

transportationinfrastructure,

$13.1bn

of

investment

in

clean

water

andsanitation

and

$24bn

for

broadband

development

by

2030.Itisapleasure

to

introduce

thisreport

on

InfrastructureOpportunities

inVietNam.

My

thanks

to

theteam

atArupVietNamfor

delivering

this

vital

pieceof

work,

and

to

all

individualsand

teams

that

havecontributed.VietNamfaces

theadditional

pressure

of

being

oneof

theworld’stop

fivemost

vulnerablecountries

to

theadverse

impacts

ofclimate

change,

threatening

food

security

in

theMekong

regionand

wreaking

damage

asextreme

weather

events

increase

infrequencyand

severity.

Prime

Minister

Pham

Minh

Chinh

showedgreatvision

attheCOP26

Summit

in

2021,committing

to

araftofambitious

climate-related

commitments,

includingatarget

forVietNamto

achieve

netzeroby2050.Building

green,sustainableand

resilient

infrastructure

will

bevital

to

realising

this

ambition.VietNam’s

growth

story

iswell

known.

Thecountry

hasconsistently

been

amongst

the

world’s

fastest-growing

economiesover

the

last

two

decades

even

managing

to

achieveannualeconomic

growth

throughout

the

COVID-19pandemic.

Economicsuccess

hasbeen

accompanied

byrapidpopulation

growth

withVietNamexceeding

100million

people

earlier

thisyear.Thisimpressive

development

hasinevitably

brought

challenges

asVietNamnavigates

growing

pressuresposed

on

its

nationalinfrastructure

by

agrowing

andever-more

mobile

population.Despite

having

thehighest

averageannualinfrastructure

spend

inSoutheast

Asia,Viet

Nam’s

export-driven

economy

risksbecomingconstrained

by

limited

airport

and

portcapacity.

Congestion

inurbancentres

isexacerbated

byanongoing

lack

of

viablepublictransport.

And

significant

potential

in

renewableenergygeneration

isundermined

by

limited

investment

into

powertransmission

infrastructure.

VietNamwas

ranked

77th

out

of

141economies

for

overall

infrastructure

quality

by

aWEF

GlobalCompetitiveness

Report

in

2019.We

aretherefore,

pleased

inthe

UKGovernment

to

beworkingwith

VietNamto

support

thedevelopment

of

criticalinfrastructure

through

anumber

of

collaborative

programmesincluding

theUK’s

Global

Infrastructure

Programme,

Future

CitiesProgramme,

digital

transformation

support

for

theHanoi

metro,and

many

others.

Last

year,

theUK,

alongside

other

internationalpartners,

announced

themobilisation

of

an

initial

$15.5bn

via

theVietNamJust

EnergyTransition

Partnership

to

support

VietNam’sclean

energytransition.

Thisyear

isparticularly

symbolic,

markingthe50th

yearanniversary

of

UK-Viet

Namdiplomatic

relations.2Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryForewordExecutive

SummaryParametersAswelook

ahead

to

thenext

fivedecades,

weverymuch

hope

toseeever-deeper

collaboration

between

our

two

countries

acrossmultiple

sectors.

Inthis

context,

Iamverypleased

to

introducethis

vital

reportdelivered

by

UKfirmArup,atimely

evaluation

oftheopportunities

for

infrastructure

development

inViet

Nam.Thisvaluable

resource

seeks

to

inform

policymakers,

businesses,and

widerreaders,helping

them

to

better

understand

VietNam’sinfrastructure

landscape

andidentify

apotential

role

forinternational

and

UKexpertise

to

support

Viet

Nam’slong-termdevelopment

aspirations.Itrust

that

this

work

will

serveto

further

deepen

UK-VietNamcollaboration

andpromote

thedevelopment

of

green

andresilientinfrastructure

–critical

to

ensuring

VietNam’s

sustained

economicsuccess.Onceagain,

letme

thank

all

who

haveplayed

apartin

deliveringthis

vital

project.

I

hopeyou

findthis

auseful

resource.SAMWOODDeputy

Consul

General,Headof

Trade&Investment,British

Consulate

in

Ho

ChiMinh

CityThisreporthas

beencommissioned

bySouth

AsiaResearchHub,Foreign,Commonwealthand

Development

Office,

Government

ofUK.

However,theviewsexpressed

inthereportdonotnecessarily

reflecttheofficial

policies

of

theGovernmentof

UK.3Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryForewordExecutive

SummaryParametersEXECUTIVE

SUMMARYREPORT

SCOPEThisreport

covers

the

currentlandscape,

keychallenges

faced,theopportunities

arising,

andkeymarket

entryconsiderations

totake

for

infrastructure

development

inVietNam.

This

hasbeenpreparedbyArupon

request

from

theDepartment

of

Business

&Trade,British

Embassy

Hanoi

and

British

Consulate

General,HoChiMinh

City,

supported

byFCDO’s

South

AsiaResearch

Hub.economic

reforms

initiated

in1986,

propelling

thenation

tomiddle-income

status

by2015.In

this

time,

VietNamsignificantlyexpanded

their

coreinfrastructure

providing

widespread

accessto

necessary

transportation

networks,

power

infrastructure

andsocial

services,

among

other

necessary

provisions.Official

Development

Assistance

(ODA)

hasalso

played

acriticalrolein

fostering

such

development

with

infrastructure

accountingfor

53%of

total

ODA

received

between

2010and

2017.

Movingforward,itisestimated

that

VietNamrequires,on

averageUS$25-30

billion

asinvestment

in

infrastructure

annually

tosustain

currenteconomic

growth

rates

(Global

InfrastructureHub).Having

graduated

from

low-income

country

status

in

2015,concessional

financing

from

multilateral

development

bankscontinues

to

dwindle.

Public

sector

spending

and

privatesectorinvestments

arethus

thekeyto

financeinfrastructure

needs.Theassessment

covers

fivesectors

of

infrastructure:

Transport,Energy,

Water

&Waste,

Social

and

Digital.

Itseeks

to

outline

thecurrentstate

of

infrastructure

inVietNam,

highlighting

the

keydriversand

gaps.

Thereportthen

outlines

themain

challengesand

bottlenecks

associated

with

developing

infrastructure

inthemarket.

Finally,itprovides

anoverview

of

thekeyareasofopportunity

and

market

entryconsiderations

to

ensuresuccess.Theresearch

process

involved

athorough

desktop

researchexercise

consulting

national

strategy

and

planningdocuments,media

articles,

industry

reports

anddatabases.

Intandem,

aset

ofexperts

and

keypublicandprivate

sector

stakeholders

wereengaged

to

develop

aholistic

understanding

of

keybottlenecks

todevelopment,

opportunity

areasand

entryconsiderations.Despite

significant

achievements

in

infrastructure

development,thecountry

still

hasalong

wayto

go.

Agrowing

population,

rapidurbanization

and

theriseof

themiddle-class

placestress

onexisting

infrastructure,

calling

for

newandhigher-quality

systems.Inaddition

to

demographic

change,Viet

Namisincreasinglyvulnerableto

various

climate-related

shocks

andstresses

thatdriveaneed

for

upgraded,resilient

infrastructure.

Thecountry

ranksfirstfor

high

exposure

to

flooding.

Moreover,chronic

stresses

likepoor

airquality

and

urbanheatworsen

asthenation

urbanizesrapidly.OVERVIEWOver

thepast

fewdecades,

VietNamhasmade

tremendousstrides

marked

bya6.3%GDP

growth

between

2000to

2022anddeclining

poverty

ratesfrom

51%to

5%between

1990and

2020.Thecountry’s

success

can

largelybeattributed

to

the

??i

M?i4Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryForewordExecutive

SummaryParametersCHALLENGES

&OPPORTUNITIESservices

and

improving

quality.

For

example,

digitalTorespond

to

imminent

risks

andsustain

ahealthy

growth

rate,VietNamhastaken

steps

to

develop

necessary

policy

to

attractinvestment,

such

asthe2021-2030Socio-Economic

DevelopmentPlan.

Thatsaid,

much

more

isrequiredto

bridgetheinvestmentgap

andaddress

quality

concerns

across

allthe

sectors:transformation

of

healthcare

hasbecome

akeypriority

set

out

bythegovernment

to

address

theovercrowding

of

hospitals

andraiseaccessibility

to

primarycareservices.

In

theeducationsector,

thereisahugeemphasis

on

developing

highereducationinstitutions

that

offer

internationally

recognised

certifications.Inthe

energysector,

insufficiencies

of

thecurrenttransmissionand

distribution

networks

call

for

heavyinvestment

insuchinfrastructure.

Intandem,

itisexpected

that

renewable

energygeneration

will

bealong-term

priority

area,asperthelatestPower

Development

Plan

VIII

and

national

climate

commitments,with

ahigh

likelihood

of

developing

more

offshore

wind

capacity.Thewatersector

isrelatively

fragmented,

with

68state-ownedWater

SupplyCompanies

(WSCs)responsibly

foroperating

watersupply

services.

Thequality

of

servicecontinues

to

beanissuewith

80%of

diseases

in

VietNambeing

attributed

tocontaminated

water.

Thissector

isalso

wherethemost

significanturban-ruraldivideisnoticed.

Assuch,the

keyfocus

for

thesectormoving

forward

isensuring

water

security

nation-wide

by

2050.Initiatives

includesmart

water

management,

restoration

ofdomestic

water

resources

andPPPs

to

develop

newsupplyplants.Inthe

transportsector,

theprimary

issue

isthat

existing

systemsareunableto

cope

with

burgeoning

demand.

Airports

havebeenreported

to

runover

their

total

designed

capacity

of

91millionpassengers

annually

,with

total

volume

of

passengers

in

2019rising

to

116million.

Currenturbannetworks

unableto

handletheloads

that

havecome

with

rapidurbanization,

inhibiting

roadsafety.

Moving

forward,

thecountry

has

ambitions

to

developseveral

large-scale

projects

such

asthe

North-South

High-SpeedRailway,

Long

Thanh

International

Airport,and

several

regionaland

urbanroads,

to

sustain

thecountry’s

economic

growth

andfoster

its

position

asagrowing

tradehuband

tourism

destinationinthe

region.Incontrast,

the

digitalsector

hasthefewest

gaps

with

the

nationachieving

widespread

coverage

of

connectivity

infrastructure,with

4Gsignal

coverage

across

99.8%of

thecountry.

Thegovernment

isactively

developing

5Ginfrastructure

and

hasinitiated

R&Dinto

6G.With

relatively

reliableconnectivity

andpower

infrastructure,

coupled

with

rapidlyrising

demand

fordigital

services

in

thenation,

VietNamhasbecome

amoreattractive

market

for

data

centres.Having

established

foundational

social

infrastructure,

thefocusfor

thesector

isshifting

towards

offering

highervalue5Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryForewordExecutive

SummaryParametersENABLING

ENVIRONMENTMoreover,

the

financial

ecosystem

forinfrastructure

financing

isstill

developing,

with

local

institutions

limited

in

their

ability

toprovide

sufficient

long-term

capital

requiredfor

largeinfrastructure

projects.

Supporting

playersand

mechanisms

likeexport

credit

agencies

and

viability

gap

financing

areyet

to

befullyleveraged,

constraining

theability

to

financenewprojects.

Assuch,efforts

andinvestment

must

go

towards

developing

theenabling

environment

to

foster

infrastructure

development

inthecountry.

Aspolicy

andsupporting

frameworks

arefurtherclarifiedand

strengthened

over

time,

opportunities

for

UKprivateinvestors

may

emerge,

given

thesignificant

demand

forinvestment.Each

of

the

sectors

areripewith

opportunity,

with

the

majority

ofearmarked

projects

lying

in

theenergyandtransportation

sectors.However,

meeting

theinfrastructure

needsof

thenation

hasproven

difficultdueto

avariety

of

bottlenecks

that

challenge

thedevelopment

of

infrastructure

in

thecountry.

Most

notably,obstacles

faced

at

theregulatory

level

haveinhibited

newprojectsfrom

taking

off.

While

VietNamenacted

anewPublic-PrivatePartnership

lawin2021,

infrastructure

developers

and

relatedstakeholders

havefound

alackof

clarity,

issues

of

discrepanciesand

insufficient

supporting

mechanisms

to

make

this

form

ofinvestment

attractive.

Thelegal

framework

hasoften

beendescribed

ascomplex,

dueto

thenumerous

regulations

that

mustbemeet

intheform

of

laws,

decrees

andcirculars.

Thisleads

todiscrepancies

between

regulations

across

agencies

or

level

ofgovernment,

impacting

investor

confidence

and

delaying

approvaltimelines.CONCLUSIONVietNamisripewith

opportunity

across

all

sectors

ofinfrastructure,

andall

stages

of

aproject

lifecycle.

Beyond

hardinfrastructure

assets,

thereareavariety

of

opportunities

toaddress

thebottlenecks

faced

inthemarket.

Thismay

includecapacity

building,digitalization,

changemanagement

or

improvedgovernance,

developing

thefinancial

markets,

andaddressingsustainability-linked

challenges.

Such

activities

will

bolster

thesuccess

of

anyfurther

infrastructure

development

inthecountry.For

private

sector

participants

keen

to

take

partin

VietNam’sgrowth

story,

this

report

can

provideagreatstarting

point

tonavigating

themarket.Additionally,

VietNamwould

benefitfrom

institutional

capacitybuilding.Doing

so

can

helpaddress

siloed

approaches

and

worktowards

developing

more

integrated

development

strategies.

Thiscould

bevia

creating

newintegrated

governance

institutions,digitizing

agencies,

or

upskilling

publicsector

personnel.Similarly,

thenation

isconstrained

bylimitations

among

privatesector

ecosystem

players

to

support

the

development

of

newprojects.

Thismay

include

legal

consultancies

or

financial

advisorsto

facilitate

deal

structuring,

for

example.6Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryForewordExecutive

SummaryParametersPARAMETERSOF

REPORTThisstudy

covers

5sectors

of

infrastructure:

transportation,energy,

waste

&water,

social

and

digital.

Thispageprovides

adescription

of

each

sector,

detailing

how

theyhavebeendefined

for

thepurposes

of

this

report

and

segmented

intosubsectors.

For

more

detailed

descriptions

of

sectors

andsubsectors,

please

referto

section

1of

theappendix.SECTORS&

SUBSECTORSOFINFRASTRUCTURETransportationEnergyWater

&

WasteSocial?

Road?

Fossil

Fuel?

Water

Supply?

Healthcare??Strategic

RoadsUrban

Networks??Coal-firedOil

&gas???CollectionTreatmentDistribution???PrimarySecondaryTertiary?

Rail?

Hydropower??RegionalUrban??DamsRun-Of-River?

Wastewater?

Education??CollectionTreatment???PrimarySecondaryTertiary?

Airports?

Clean

Energy??InternationalDomestic????Solar?

StormwaterWind??CollectionTreatmentBiomassWaste-to-EnergyDigital?

Water

Transportation??Inland

WaterwaysSeaports?

Solid

Waste?

Connectivity?

Others???CollectionTreatmentDisposal??WirelessWired???TransmissionDistributionStorage?

Data

Storage

&

ProcessingData

Centres?7Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryPar

t1OverviewA

landscape

of

infrastructuredevelopmentin

Viet

NamIntroduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryBrief

HistoryKeyDriversStateofPlayA

BRIEF

HISTORY

OF

INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELOPMENT

IN

VIET

NAMinfrastructure

hasexpanded

rapidlyin

orderto

meet

risingdemand.

VietNam’s

internet

penetration

ratehas

reached77.1%,

on

parwith

its

neighbours.

4Provision

of

social

andwater&waste

infrastructure

hasrapidlygrown

awell.3THE

RISE

OF

MODERN

VIETNAMVietNam’s

GDP

growth

hasaveraged

close

to

6.3%from

2000to2022andproven

remarkably

resilient

duringtheCovid-19pandemic.

Poverty

asmeasured

using

the$1threshold

fellfrom51%to

5%between

1990and

2020.1Official

development

assistance

(ODA)

hasalso

played

acriticalrolein

fostering

infrastructure

development

inVietNam.Infrastructure

accounted

for

53%of

total

Official

DevelopmentAssistance

received

between

2010and2017.

5Since1993,

VietNamhasattracted

more

than

US$80

billion

inOfficialDevelopment

Aid(ODA)

and

concessional

loans,

making

itone

ofthelargest

ODA

beneficiaries

globally.

6Alargeportion

of

this

success

can

beattributed

to

the

highlevelof

investment

ininfrastructure,

which

overhauled

thecountry’slandscape

following

the??i

M?i,ahost

of

economic

reformsinitiated

by

the

Communist

Party

of

VietNam

(CPV)

since1986.Thesereforms

wereaccompanied

by

arapidexpansion

in

accessto

power,

allof

which

combined

propelled

VietNamfrom

alow-income

economy

to

amiddle

income

one

in2015.

Thefocus

oninfrastructure

development

intensified

in

thepast

12years.Between

2010and2014,

publicand

privateinfrastructurespending

accounted

for

5.7%of

thecountry’s

GDP,

compared

toonly

2to

3%inother

Southeast

Asian

countries.

2Thishigh

level

of

investment

propelled

theexpansion

ofinfrastructure,

enabling

VietNamto

providebasic

access

to

itsfast-growing

industrial

base,and

growing

middle

class

population.Access

to

paved

roads

ishigh,and

ruralhousehold

electrificationreached

almost

99%in2016,

from

<50%in1990.

Thecountry’selectricity

consumption

percapita

hasalmost

tripled

in

thepastdecade.

Assuch,

power

generation,

transmission

and

distributionFigure

1:Infrastructure

Investment

inViet

Nam,71

ISEAS-Yusof

IshakInstitute

–

VietNam’s

Tentative

Approach

toRegional

Infrastructure2

Infrastructure

Report,

BritChamVietNam,

20213

VietNam’s

DevelopmentSuccessStory

and

theUnfinished

SDG

Agenda4

Countries

withthehighestinternetpenetration

rate,Statista,January

20235

“Transition

FinanceCountryStudy–VietNam

–Ontheedgeoftransition,”

OECD,

20196

'VietNamGears

UpFor

ODAAcceleration

To

Drive

Projects,'

VietNamInvestmentReview

-ThanhThu,

December20217

VietNam

Infrastructure

Constraints,

Harvard,NA9Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryBrief

HistoryKeyDriversStateofPlayTHE

LONG

ROADAHEADDespite

these

improvements,

Viet

Namstill

hasalong

wayto

goinfrastructure

wise.

For

example,

theWorld

Economic

Forum’s2019Global

Competitiveness

Report

rankedViet

Namas67th

outof

141economies

for

national

competitiveness

and

77th

forinfrastructure

quality.1

Only20percent

of

thecountry’s

nationalroads

arepaved,2

much

lower

thanneighbouring

countries

suchasMalaysia

(80.9%),3

India(63.24%)2,4

and

Indonesia

(89.7%).5Recently,

two

North-South

Expressway

component

projects

havealso

been

converted

from

PPP

to

public

investment

dueto

thelackof

interest

from

private

investors.7Inaddition,

asViet

Namgraduated

from

low-income

countrystatus

in

2018,concessional

fundsto

VietNamfrom

theWorldBank’s

International

Development

Association

hasdwindled,from

$1.38B

in2014to

$0in

2018.Infrastructure

remains

fragmented

and

of

low

quality.

Waterpollution

isabigchallenge;

averageenergyconsumption

isstilllow

compared

to

other

emerging

markets

butisexpected

toincrease

dramatically

until

2030.

Thecurrent,

especially

urbanroad

network

isalreadyseverely

congested

duringpeakhours,with

increases

inprivate

car

ownership

exacerbating

this

problem.Thisisarealchallenge,

considering

thesizeof

theinvestmentsVietNamneeds

inorder

to

maintain

its

growth

trajectory.

AspertheGlobal

Infrastructure

Hub,Viet

Namneedson

averageUS$25-30B

annuallyfor

infrastructure

ifthecountry

wants

tomaintain

its

currentrateof

economic

growth.6INVESTMENT

NEEDS

ANDOPPORTUNITIESHowever,

whilelargepublicinvestments

havebeen

earmarkedfor

thecountry’s

infrastructure

development,

Viet

Namisfacingdifficulties

inmobilizing

infrastructure

investment

from

theprivate

sector,

causing

itto

relyheavily

on

state

resources,

whichcurrently

fundabout

90%of

the

country’s

infrastructure

project.By2020,although

several

road-building

PPP

projects

havebeenimplemented,

some

of

them

werelater

renegotiated

andeventually

converted

to

public-invested

ones

dueto

projectdelays,

incompetent

investors,

or

financial

irregularities.1

TheGlobal

Competitiveness

Report2019,

WorldEconomicForum,

20192

“Accelerating

VietNam's

infrastructure

development

for

Sustainable

Growth,”Infrastructure

Viet

Nam,

Ministry

of

Industry

andTrade,20193

ASEAN

regional

roadsafety

strategy,ASEAN,

20164

Basic

Road

StatisticsofIndia

2016-177,

Ministry

ofRoad

Transportand

Highways,

20175

ASEAN

regional

roadsafety

strategy,ASEAN,

20166

WhyVietNam’s

infrastructure

iscrucial

for

economicgrowth,VietNam

Briefing,

Setpember20227

“Chuyen

doi2

du

antrencaotocBac–Namphia

Dongsangdautucong”,DangCongsan

Viet

Nam,

January

202110Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryBrief

HistoryKeyDriversStateofPlayTHE

ROLE

OF

REGIONAL

INFRASTRUCTURE

INITIATIVESAsacounterbalance

to

thereduction

inODA

to

VietNam,

manysignificant

infrastructure

development

initiatives

havebeenintroduced

inrecent

years.

For

example,

Chinaintroduced

theambitious

US$1

trillion

Belt

andRoad

Initiative

(BRI)in2013tosupport

“affordable

infrastructure”

indeveloping

countries,primarily

intransportation

andpower.1In2016,

Japan

announced

theExpanded

Partnership

for

QualityInfrastructure,

theHigh-Quality

Infrastructure

Export

ExpansionInitiative,

aswell

asreforms

to

improve

its

loan-granting

processand

to

provideadditional

guarantees

against

risks,to

encourageprivate

sector

investment.

Theannualbudgetfor

Japan’sinfrastructure

exports

hassince2017nearlydoubled

from

￥110billion

to

￥200billion

(approximately

US$1.8

billion).

2Japan

quicklyresponded

with

its

“quality

infrastructure”

driveandramped

uplendingunderits

2015Partnership

forQualityInfrastructure

(PQI)

campaign.

Accordingly,

Japan

pledged

toincrease

itsinvestment

inAsian

infrastructure

to

roughly

US$116billion

for

theperiod

2016-2020,

a30percentincrease

comparedto

theprevious

fiveyears.However,

many

of

these

initiatives

come

with

tradeoffs

that

VietNamhasbeen

careful

to

avoid,

from

impact

on

localcommunities

to

debtconcerns,

commercial

sustainability,geopolitical

tensions,

implementation

difficulties,

loan

costs

andprocurement

rules.Figure

2:Chinavs.

Japan’sInfrastructure

Projects

inSEA

in2019.3Figure

3:Japan’sODA

to

Southeast

Asia(gross

disbursement

base,

billion

US$)41

“HowBigisChina’sBelt

andRoad?”,

Jonathan

Hillman,

CenterforStrategic

and

International

Studies,8

April20182

“Quality

infrastructure:

Japan's

robustchallenge

toChina'sBeltand

Road,”

TobiasHarris,WarontheRocks,

9

April20193

“China

nomatch

for

Japan

inSouthEast

AsiaInfrastructure

Race,Bloomberg,

June20194

“WhitePaperonDevelopmentCooperation,”

Ministry

ofForeign

Affairs,

Japan,201711Introduction

Overview

Challenges

Opportunities

Market

EntryBrief

HistoryKeyDriversStateofPlayKEY

DRIVERS

FOR

INFRASTRUCTURE

IN

VIET

NAMInaddition

to

policy

andregulatory

pushes,

thereareseveralother

driversnecessitating

thedevelopment

of

infrastructure

inVietNam,

such

asdemographic

change

andclimate-related

risks,among

others.pressurefor

urbaninfrastructure

such

asroads

or

publictransportation.

Additionally,

rapid

popula