Principles語言學習與語言教學的原則908課后題

7.Whatisthedifferencebetweenamistakeandanerror?Howcanaforeignlanguageteachertellthedifferencebetweenthetwointhespeechoflearners?Whyisitimportanttodistinguishbetweenmistakesanderrors?Key:Amistakereferstoaperformanceerrorthatiseitherarandomguessora"slip,"inthatitisafailuretoutilizeaknownsystemcorrectly.Allpeoplemakemistakes,inbothnativeandsecondlanguagesituations.Anerrorisanoticeabledeviationfromtheadultgrammarofanativespeaker,reflectingtheinterlanguagecompetenceofthelearner.IfanEnglishlearnersays“Johncanssing/'butonotheroccasionssays"Johncansing,”itisdifficulttodclcrmincwhether"cans"isamistakeoranerror.If.however,furtherexaminationoftheIcamcfsspeechrevealssuchutterancesas"Johnwillsgo/"Johnmayscome/'andsoforth,withveryfewinstancesofcorrectthird?pe2nsingularusageofmodalauxiliaries,youmightthenconcludethat"cans：'"mays/andothersuchformsareerrorsindicatingthatthelearnerhasnotdistinguishedmcxlalsfromotherverbs,thoughpcrhaps-becauscofthefewcorrectinstances—sheisonthevergeofmakingthenecessarydifferentiationbetweenthetwotypesofverbsinhersystematicconceptionofthesecondlanguage?Erroranalysisbecamedistinguishedfromcontrastiveanalysisbyitsexaminationoferrorsattributabletoallpossiblesources,notjustthosewhichresultfromnegativetransferofthenativelanguage?Erroranalysiseasilysupersededcontrastiveanalysis,aswediscoveredthatonlysomeoftheerrorsalearnermakesarealtributabletothemothertongue?thatlearnersdonotactuallymakealltheerrorsthatcontrastiveanalysispredictedtheyshould.andthatlearnersfromdisparatelanguagebackgroundstendtomakesimilarerrorsinlearningonetargetlanguage.Errors-ovcrtmanifestationsoflearners*systcms-ariscfromseveralpossiblegeneralsources:interlingualerrorsofinterferencefromthenativelanguage,intralingualerrorswithinthetargetlanguage,thesociolinguisticcontextofcommunication,psycholinguisticorcognitivestrategies,andnodoubtcountlessaffectivevariables?&WhatdidCordermeanbyovertandcoverterrors?Whyistheterminologymisleading?Canyouthinkofexamplesofcommonsentence-levelanddiscourse-levelerrorsmyourforeignlanguage?Key:Overterrorsreferstoungrammaticalsentences?Coverterrorsreferstosuperficiallywell-formedsentences,butwhichmakenosenseinthecontext.Forexample,“Whoareyou? I'mfine,thankyou."thisiscoverterro匚“1hasabook."isaoverterror.12.Fossilizationandlearningareactuallytheresultofthesamecognitiveprocessesatwork?Explainthis.Then,trytothinkoffactorsotherthanufeedback^thatcouldcauseorcontributetofossilization.Oncealanguageformisfossilized,caniteverbecorrected?Key:SomewhereintheL2learningprocess,suchanILmayreachoneormoretemporaryrestrictingphasesduringwhichthedevelopmentoftheILappearstobedetained?ApermanentcessationofprogresstowardtheTLhasbeenreferredtoasfossilization.Thislinguisticphenomenon,ILfossilization,occurswhenprogressintheacquisitionofL2isarrested,despiteallreasonableattemptsatlearning?Fossilizationincludesthoseitems,rules,andsub-systemsthatL2learnerstendtoretainintheirILwhileintheprocessofacquiringaparticularTL,i.e.,fossilizationencompassesthoseaspectsofILthatbecomeentrenchedandpermanent,andthatwillonlybeeliminatedwithconsiderableeffort,forthemajorityofL2learners,regardlessofexplanationorinstruclion.Moreover,ithasalsobeennoticedthatadultL2learners'ILsystems,inparticular,haveatendency,orpropensity,tobecomestagnatedorsolidified,i.e”thelanguagelearnersmakenofurtherprogressinILdevelopmenttowardtheTL,andbecomepermanentlyfossilized,inspiteoftheamountofexposuretotheL2?

Gobacktoyourdefinitionsoflanguage,learning,andteachingthatyouformulatedatthebeginningofthisbook.Howmightyourevisethosedefinitionsnow?Key:Atthebeginningofthisbook,Mydefinitionoflanguageis“agenerativeuniversalsystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforcommunicationinaspeechcommunity”.Mydefinitionoflearningis“theactiveacquisitionofknowledgewhichinvolvescognitiveprocesses”?Mydefinitionofteachingis"theeffectivewayofimpartingknowledge”.Now1wouldliketoredefinelanguageas“asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforcommunication^.Iwouldliketodefinelearningas“iheacquisitionofknowledgeandabilities：Iwouldliketodefineteachingas“theprocessofimpartingknowledgeandcultivatingabilities^.2.AttitudesStereotypingusuallyimpliessometypeofattitudetowardthecultureorlanguageinquestion?Attitudesdevelopearlyinchildhoodandarctheresultofparents'andpeers'attitudes,contactwithpeoplewhoare"difterenf,inanynumberofways,andinteractingeffectivefactorsinthehumanexperience.Secondlanguagelearnersbenefitfrompositiveattitudesandthatnegativeattitudesmayleadtodecreasedmotivationandinalllikelihood,becauseofdecreasedinputandinteraction,tounsuccessfulattainmentofproficiency.Negativeattitudesusuallyemergeeitherfromfalsestereotypingorfromundueethnocentrism?2.態(tài)度定式常常含有對文化或語育的態(tài)度。態(tài)度在童年早期開始形成，受父母和同伴的態(tài)度的影響，在個人與不同的人的交往過程中，在多種因素的相互作用下慢慢形成。第二語言學習者得益于積極的態(tài)度。消極的態(tài)度會降低動機，造成語言輸入和人際互動減少，導致學習效果不好。消極的態(tài)疫常常源于錯誤的定式或過度的民族優(yōu)越感。2.態(tài)度定式常常含有對文化或語育的態(tài)度。態(tài)度在童年早期開始形成，受父母和同伴的態(tài)度的影響，在個人與不同的人的交往過程中，在多種因素的相互作用下慢慢形成。第二語言學習者得益于積極的態(tài)度。消極的態(tài)度會降低動機，造成語言輸入和人際互動減少，導致學習效果不好。消極的態(tài)疫常常源于錯誤的定式或過度的民族優(yōu)越感。Key:Secondlanguageisanacceptedlinguafrancausedforeducation,government,orbusinesswithinthecountry.Secondlanguagelearningiswithinone'sovvnnativeculturewithmanyopportunitiestousethesecondlanguage?Foreignlanguagelearningislearninganonnativclanguageinone'sownculturewithfewimmediateandwidespreadopportunitiestousethelanguagewithintheenvironmentofone'sownculture?Inteacherasecondlanguage,thereisprobablynoseriousculturalconflict,soteacherscanputmoreemphasisonlinguisticdevelopmentofthestudents?Inteachingaforeignlanguage,teacherscanprovideculturaltopicsforabetterunderstandingthepeopleoftheforeignculture?

III.Language,Thought,andCultureIII.語言■思維和文化III.語言■思維和文化文化是語言和思想的交融。文化模式、習俗以及生活方式都通過語言農(nóng)達出來，同時帶有某種文化特征的世界觀也在語言中體現(xiàn)。根Sapir-Whorf假說，語言系統(tǒng)（即語法）不只是表達思想的工具，也是形成思想的媒介，它指引個人的精神活動、分析性思維以及綜合性思維。思想的形成不是一個獨立的過程，而是語法的一部分，而且或多或少地隨著語法的變化而變化。AccordingtotheSapir-Whorfhypothesis,thebackgroundlinguisticsystem(inotherwords,thegrammar)ofeachlanguageisnotmerelyareproducinginstrumentforvoicingideasbutratherisitselftheshaperofideas,theprogramandguidefortheindividuafsmentalactivity,forhisanalysisofimpressions,forhissynthesisofhismentalstockintrade.Formulationofideasisnotanindependentprocess,butispartofaparticulargrammaranddiffers,fromslightlytogreatly,asbetweendifferentgrammars.Considersomeofthecultureswithwhichyouarcfamiliarandlistvariousstereotypesofthosecultures?Shareyourstereotypeswiththoseofaclassmateorfriendandcompareyourperceptions?Howmightthosestereotypeshelpyoutounderstandsomeonefromanotherculture?Howmighttheyhinderyourunderstanding?Key:Chinesecultureshowsmuchrespecttothesenior.Chinesecultureattachesmuchimportancetothestabilityoffamilylife.Thosestereotypescanhelponetounderstandthetypicalcharacteristicsofsomeonefromanotherculture,sincetheymaybeaccurateindepictingthe"typical"memberofaculture?However,thosestereotypesmighthindertheunderstandingofapersonfromanotherculture?Theycannottelleverythingaboutthisperson,sincetheyareinaccuratefordescribingaparticularperson.Discusssensitivecross-culturaldifferences(religious,political,social,orpersonalissues)withsomeonefromanotherculture.Canyouempathize(notnecessarilysympathize)withthosedifferences?Inyourdiscussion,whatattitudeswerereflectedtowardyourculture?Whatattitudesdoyouthinkyouexpressedtowardtheotherculture?Key:InChina,religiousbeliefisasensitiveissue?Chinesepeopledonottalkmuchabouttheirownreligiousbeliefs?InBritish,religiousbeliefisapublicissue?ItiswellknownthatmostWesternpeopleareChristians.Ithinkitisnormal.ChinesepeopleholdfirmbeliefinancientsagesandtheirwisdomssuchasConfucius.BritishpeoplebelieveinGodwhoteachesthemwisdomsthatarenecessaryforlivingahappylifeinthisworld.Thoughtherearedifferencesintheattitudestowardreligiousbelief,peoplebelieveingoodnessandwisdom,andpursuehappinessalike.Ithinkitisadecisionthatonecanmakeforhimself.Eachtypeofculturehasitsowncharacteristics?Soitwouldbebettertorespectdifferentcultures.Myattitudetendstobeobjective.IagreewithChineseculture,andIalsorespecttheotherculture.Trytothinkofsomeareaofyouraffectiveorcognitiveselfinwhichyoufeelsomeprejudicetowardmembersofanothercultureorevenasubculture(suchaspeoplefromdifferentpartsofyourowncountry).Whatarethedeeplyseatedcausesofthatprejudice?Shouldyouovercomethatprejudice?Howmightapersongoabouteradicatingsuchnegativeattitudes?Key:Ihavesomeprejudicetowardspeoplewhohaveaverydifferentlifestyle.Ilikelivingasimpleandregularlife,onlypurchasingthemostnecessarythingsfromsupermarkets,nottalkingmuchwithpeople,doingcleaningonweekends,andsoforth.SomefriendsofmineandsomeforeignteachersinChinaliketryingnewthings,travellingtodifferentplaces,holdingpartiesfromtimetotime,andgoingtosleeplateatnight.Personallyspeaking,Icannotbenefitfromtheirwayofliving?Itseemstoonoisyforme.Theremaybedeeplyseatedcausesofthatprejudice.Ihavebeenaccustomedtoasimplelife.Ispentmychildhoodinthecountrywheretherewerenotmanypeopleandthewayoflivingwassimple.1think1shouldovercomethatprejudice?Ihavetriedtotakepartinmoreactivities,andfinally1maintainedmyownwayofliving?Luckily,myfriendsunderstcxxlmewellandthefriendshipbetweenuskeptgoing,thoughweweredifferentinsomeway.Inordertoeradicatesuchnegativeattitudes,apersoncanlearntorespectdifferentkindsofpeopleandculture?Infact,thereisnoneedtoworrythatpeoplearoundyouorfromanotherculturearedifferentfromyou.Eachindividualisparticular.Justbepolite,respectotherpeople,andtrytomakefriendswith(hem.Ifyouhaveeverlivedinanothercountry,canyounowidentifysomeofthestagesofacculturationinyourownexperience?Describeyourfeelings?Didyoumovethroughallfourstages?Didyoureachassimilation?Oradaptation?Didyouexperienceanemia?Key:Ihavenotlivedinanothercountry,butseveralyearsago,ImovedfromhomeinsouthernpartofChinatocollegethatisinnorthernpartofChina.Thereisacculturationinthisprocess.Atfirst.Iwasexcitedaboutthenewthingsinthesurroundings,includingtheaccentofnorthernstudentsinthecollege?ThenIfoundthatIdislikethefood?Peopleatenoodlesordumplingsforlunch,andthedishestasteddifferent.Ijustdonotlikeit.SoIatebreadforeachmealinaday.SometimesIjustatefruits.Iwasnothappy.Afteraperiodoftime,Itriedtoeatallkindsoffoodprovidedinthecollege?SometimesIgotwhatIlikedtoeat,andmoreoftenIdidnotlikethefoodatall.Tomysurprise,ayearlater,IdidnotfeelanythingwrongwhenIatethefoodinthecollege.ItseemedthatIacceptedthetastesofthefoodinthenorth?ItcanbeseenthatImovedthroughallfourstagesofacculturation.Finally,Ireachedassimilation,orsay,adaptation?IdidexperienceanemiawhenIdidnotacceptthedifference.10.Inwhatwayareprinciplesofcommunicativelanguageteachingoperatinginmethodsthathavebeensummarizedinprevious"intheclassroom''vignettes?Key:Communicativelanguageteachingmakesuseofreal-lifesituationsthatnecessitatecommunication.Theteachersetsupasituationthatstudentsarelikelytoencounterinreallife.Unliketheaudiolingualmethodoflanguageteaching,whichreliesonrepetitionanddrills,thecommunicativeapproachcanleavestudentsinsuspenseastotheoutcomeofaclassexercise,whichwillvaryaccordingtotheirreactionsandresponses.Thereal-lifesimulationschangefromdaytoday.Studentsthethird(recovery)stageofacculturation.Personallyspeaking,Ihavenotfoundanysupportforthenotionofaculturallydefinedcriticalperiod?haveknownpeoplewhoprogressedwellintoStage3withoutlinguisticmastery?TherearcmanyteacherswhocomefromoutsideChinasuchasAmericaorAustralia?TheyteachEnglishatcollegeorincompanies.SomeofthemhavelivedinChinaformanyyears,eatingChinesefood,workingwithChineseteachers,andlivingahappylifeinChina.However,manyofthemknowlittleaboutChineselanguage?TheseEnglishteachersprogressedwellintoStageofacculturationwithoutlinguisticmasteryinChinesethethird(recovery)stageofacculturation.Personallyspeaking,Ihavenotfoundanysupportforthenotionofaculturallydefinedcriticalperiod?haveknownpeoplewhoprogressedwellintoStage3withoutlinguisticmastery?TherearcmanyteacherswhocomefromoutsideChinasuchasAmericaorAustralia?TheyteachEnglishatcollegeorincompanies.SomeofthemhavelivedinChinaformanyyears,eatingChinesefood,workingwithChineseteachers,andlivingahappylifeinChina.However,manyofthemknowlittleaboutChineselanguage?TheseEnglishteachersprogressedwellintoStageofacculturationwithoutlinguisticmasteryinChinese?TheirlanguageproficiencyinChinesehasnotdevelopedwell.TheyjusthavenointerestinlearningChinesewell,buttheykeeppickingupalittle