語言學(xué)教程胡壯麟考研筆記

Unit1invitationstolinguisticsDesignfeaturesoflanguage:Thedesignfeatures:thedistinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguagethatessentiallymakehumanlanguagedistinguishablefromlanguagesofanimalsArbitrarinessTheabsenceofanyphysicalcorrespondencebetweenlinguisticsignalsandtheentitiestowhichtheyrefer./Theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning./Arbitrarinessrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning.(e.g.murmurous/murderous)/ArbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevelFunctionalistsholdthatthemoststrictlyarbitraryleveloflanguageexistedinthedistinctiveunitsofsoundsbywhichwedistinguishpairsofwordslikepinandbin,orfishanddish.(e.g.Asthenightfell,thewindrose.)/ArbitrarinessandconventionConvention:itisanidiom itisaconventiontosaythingslikethisway.(WheninRome,doasromansdo.)Duality:Thestructuralorganizationoflanguageintotwoabstractlevels:meaningfulunits(wordsandphrase)andmeaninglesssegments(soundandletters)Thesecondaryunitsaremeaninglessandtheprimaryunitsaremeaningful./Trafficlightsystemdoesnothaveduality:itcannotbedividedintomeaninglessunits,soitonlyhasprimarylevellikeanimals.Alargenumberofmeaningfulunitscanbeformedoutofasmallnumberofelements——productivepower.CreativityThespeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.It’spotentialtocreateendlesssentences.(recursiveness)DisplacementTheabilityoflanguageenabletheiruserssymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.OriginoflanguageThe“bow-bow”theory:imitatingofanimalcallsinwildenvironmentThe“pooh-pooh”theory:theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpain,angerandjoy.The“yo-he-yo”theory:asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.

Functionsoflanguage：Informativefunction:totellandtogivesomethingoutInterpersonalfunction:(人隙功能)bywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.Forexample,thewayinwhichpeopleaddressothersandrefertothemselves.DearSir Performativefunction:theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,suchasinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminalsandcursingofenemiesEmotivefunction:(alsocalledexpressivefunction)utteredwithoutanypurposeofcommunicatingtoothers,butessentiallyaverbalresponsetoaperson’sownfeeling.Phaticcommunion:Itreferstosocialinteractionoflanguage.Broadlyspeakingitreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslangs,jokes,jargon Recreationalfunction:Theuseoflanguageforheartyjoyofusingit.Metalingualfunction:Ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself,(self-reflexive)wehumanbeingscantalkabouttalkingandcanthinkaboutthinking.Forexample:Tobehonest,tomakealongstoryshort,inaword.Mainbranchesoflinguistics:PhoneticsItstudiesspeechsound,includingtheproductionofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech PhonologyItisthestudyofasubsetofthosesoundsthatconstitutelanguageandmeaning.Itstudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandshapeofsyllables.MorphologyItisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Forexample:Thedogseestherabbit.InEnglish,differentordergivesdifferentmeaning.However,inLatinandalsoinRussian,dogandrabbittakeonsomemorphologicalendingsdependingonwhethertheyaresubjectorobject.So,differentsentenceorderdidnotchangeitsmeaning.SyntaxItisaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences.Forexample:/Thechildrenwatched[thefireworkfromthehill]./Thechildrenwatched[thefirework][fromthehill].SemanticsExaminehowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.Itisnotonlyconcernedwithmeaningsofwordsaslexicalitems,butalsowithlevelsoflanguagebelowwordsandaboveit,suchasmeaningofmorphemesand

sentences.PragmaticsThestudyofmeaningincontext.MacrolinguisticsPsycholinguistics（心理言吾言孥）Itinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.Sociolinguistics（社畬吾言孥）Itisthestudyofthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,thecharacteristicsoftheirfunctions,andthecharacteristicsoftheirspeakersasthesethreeconstantlyinteractandchangewithinaspeechcommunity.Anthropologicallinguistics（人類^吾言孥）Anthropologicallinguistareconcernedwiththeemergenceoflanguageandalsothedivergenceoflanguageoverthousandsofyears.Computationallinguistics（雷月省吾言孥）Theuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptiveanddescriptiveThedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsareandhowthingsoughttobe.Descriptive:/Tomakeanobjectiveandsystematicaccountofpatternsanduseofalanguageorvariety./Peopledon’tsayX.Prescriptive:/Tomakeauthoritarianstatementaboutthecorrectnessofaparticularuseoflanguage./Don’tsayXSynchronicanddiachronicSynchronic（共畤）/Saidofanapproachthatstudieslanguageatatheoretical“point”oftime./Forexample:thestructureofShakespeare’sEnglish.Diachronic（屜畤）/Saidofthestudyofdevelopmentoflanguageandlanguagesovertime./Forexample:PejorativesensedevelopmentinEnglishLangueandparoleLangue/Thelanguagesystemsharedbya“speechcommunity”Parole/Theconcreteutterancesofaspeaker.CompetenceandperformanceCompetence/Unconsciousknowledgeofthesystemofgrammaticalrulesinalanguage.>Performance/Thelanguageactuallyusedbypeopleinspeakingandwriting.Unit2phoneticsandphonologyThemajorbranchesofphonetics:ArticulatoryphoneticsThestudyofproductionofspeechsoundsAuditoryphoneticsItstudiesthesoundsfromthehearer’spointofview,thatis,thesoundperceivedbyhearer.AcousticphoneticsItstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech.SpeechorgansInsidethethroat:pharynxandlarynxInsidetheoralcavity:upperlip,upperteeth,thealveolarridge,thehardpalateandthesoftpalate,andtheuvula.Thebottompartofthemouthcontainsthelowerlip,lowerteeth,thetongueandthemandible(下含段.Inphonetics:thetongueisdividedintofiveparts:thetip,theblade,thefront,thebackandtheroot.Inphonology:thetongueisdividedintocoronal(tipandblade),dorsal(frontandback)andradical(root)Mannerofarticulation(apictureisaddedhere)Stops:Thesoundisproducedwhentheobstructioniscomplete,andthesoundisproducedwhentheobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainst.NasalsThesoundisproducedbylowingthesoftpalateandtheairpassthroughthenose.Fricatives:Itreferstosoundproducedwhenanobstructionispartialandtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemouth,soastocausedefinitelocalfricationatthepoint.AffricativesItreferstothesoundproducedwhenobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlywiththefricationresultingfrompartialobstruction.ApproximantsOnearticulatorisclosetoanotherbutwithoutthevocaltractnarrowtocauseaturbulent.LateralsTheobstructionofairstreamisatapointalongthecenteroforaltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth.TrillItisproducedwhenanarticulatorissetvibratingbyairstream,suchas/r/inred.

TapWhenthetonguemakesasingletapagainstthealveolarridgetoproduceonlyonevibrate.FlapItisproducedwhenthetipofthetonguecurledupandbackinaretroflexgestureanthenstrikingtheroofofthemouthinthepost-alveolarregionasitreturnstoitspositionbehindthelowerfrontteeth.Placeofarticulation:Itreferstowhereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowingortheobstructionoftheair.Vowels:Vowelsaresoundsproducedwithoutobstruction,sonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.Thecriteriaofthevowel(apictureisaddedhere)Theheightofthetongueraising:high,mid,lowThepositionofhighestpartofthetongue:front,central,backThelengthortensenessofthetongue:longorshort;tenseorlaxTheshapeofthelips:roundedandunroundedMonophthongsdiphthongsandtripthongsTheyarethosepurevowelswithunchangingqualityIfasinglemovementfromoneelementofthetongueisinvolved,thecombiningvoweliscalleddiphthongsIftwomovementsfromoneelementtosecond,fromthesecondtothethirdofthetongueisinvolved,thecombiningvoweliscalledtripthongs.CoarticulationItreferstotheprocessofsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationswhensoundsshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Anticipatorycoarticulation:thesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,suchasinthecaselambPreservativecoarticulation:thesoundbecomesmoreliketheprecedingsound,suchasinthecaseofmapNarrowtranscriptionandbroadtranscription:Narrowtranscription:wetrytosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeven

theminutestshadesofpronunciation.Itcontainsasetofdiacritics.Phonologicaltheory:MinimalpairsWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentinthesameplaceinstrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpairForexample,pinandpen;tipandtapPhone,phoneme,andallophonesPhone:itisabasicunitofphoneticstudy,anditisaminimalsoundsegmentthathumanspeechorganscanproduce.Phoneme:itisabasicunitofphonologicalstudy,anditisanabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatures.Forexample,/t//d/ Thedifferentrealizationofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,[p1]ComplementarydistributionWhentwoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemedonotdistinguishenmeaningandneveroccurinthesamecontext,thentheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.[p]and[ph];[l]and[l]FreevariationIftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast,thatis,thesubstitutionforanotherdoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thenthetwosoundsareinfreevariation.Forexample,incupthe/p/and/p/PhonemiccontrastanddistinctivefeaturesPhoneticcontrast:iftwophonemesoccursinaminimalpairoccurinthesameplaceanddistinguishmeaning,thesetwophonemesaresaidtobeinphonemiccontrast.Distinctivefeatures:theyarethosefeatureswhicharephonologicallyrevantpropertiesandcandistinguishmeaning,forexample,plosiveness,bilabiality,andvoicelessnessinEnglishphonology.Someofthemajordistinctionsincludeconsonantal,sonorant,nasalandvoiced.Theseareknownasbinaryfeatureswhichhavetwovaluesdenotedby"+”and"-”PhonologicalprocessAnyphonologicalprocessmusthasaspectstoit:AsetofsoundtoundergotheprocessAsetofsoundproducedbytheprocessAsetofsituationinwhichtheprocessappliesAssimilation:Regressiveassimilation: