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Context
EdwardT.Halldefined
“context”inhisbookBeyondCulture
astheinformationthatsurroundsanevent
and
itisinextricablybound
upwiththemeaningoftheevent.”high-contextculturelow-contextcultureContextContext1.High-contextculturesMostoftheinformationisinthephysicalcontextoris
internalizedinthepeople.Verylittleinformationisactuallycodedinthe
verbalmessage.Peopleareveryhomogeneous.High-contextcultures
changevery
littleovertime.Consistentmessageshaveproducedconsistentresponsestotheenvironment.1.High-contextculturesSomecommoncharacteristicsofhigh-contextculturesinclude:Peopletendtobemoreawareoftheirsurroundingsandtheir
environment.Peopledonotrelyonverbalcommunicationastheirmain
informationsource.Thecontextofthemessageiswellunderstoodbyboththesender
andthereceiver.Peopleplacemoreemphasisoninterpersonalrelationships.2.Low-contextculturesSomecommoncharacteristicsoflow-contextculturesinclude:Informationiscommunicatedprimarilythroughlanguage.Rulesareexplicitlyspelledoutandmeaningisexpressed
verbally.Verbalmessagescontainmoreinformationandverylittleis
showninthecontextorwithintheparticipants.2.Low-contextculturesAsHallsays,“high-contextpeopleareapttobecomeimpatient
andirritatedwhenlow-contextpeopleinsistongivingthem
informationtheydon’tneed.”Chinesecommunicatebynotstatingthings
directly,whileAmericansusuallydothe
opposite—“spellitout.”Theformeris
lookingformeaningandunderstandingin
whatisnotsaid—inthenonverbal
communicationorbodylanguage,inthe
silencesorpauses,andintherelationships.The
latterplacesemphasisonsendingand
receivingaccuratemessagesdirectly,usuallybybeingarticulatewithwords.1,4,5,6,8,102,3,7,9
Valueorientations(1)Whatistheinborncharacterof
humannature?(2)Whatistherelationshipbetween
peopleandnature?(3)Whatisthefocusofhumanlife
withrespecttotime?(4)Whatisthefocusofhumanactivity?(5)Whatistherelationshipofonepersontoanother?1.HumannatureorientationThe
humannatureorientationdealswiththeinborncharacter
of
humannature.Humanscanbeseenasbasicallygood,basicallyevil,oramixtureofthegoodandtheevil.(1)
Humannatureisevilbutperfectible.(2)
Humannatureisamixtureofthegoodandtheevil.(3)
Humannatureisgoodbutcorruptible.(1)Humannatureisevilbutperfectible(2)
Humannatureisamixtureof
thegoodandtheevilWiththeriseofhumanismintheWest,thebeliefabouthuman
naturehaschanged.Someculturesbelievethathumanshavebotha
goodsideandabadside.Forexample,thelegislationandmedia
shouldkeepaneyeonthegovernmenttomakesureitdoesnotdo
evilthings.(3)
Humannatureisgoodbutcorruptible2.Human-natureorientation(1)Mastery-over-natureview(2)Harmony-with-nature
view(3)Subjugation-to-nature
view(1)Mastery-over-natureviewInindustrializedsocieties,themastery-over-natureviewtendsto
predominate.Thisorientationinvolvestheviewthatallnaturalforces
canandshouldbeovercomeorputtousebyhumans.(2)Harmony-with-natureviewTheharmony-with-natureviewdrawsnodistinctionsbetweenhumanlifeandnature.(3)Subjugation-to-natureviewOneexampleisshepherdswhobelievenothing
canbe
donetocontrolnatureifitthreatens—neitherthelandnortheflockcanbe
protectedfromstorms.Somepeoplebelievehumans
areweak,whilethe
natureispowerful.Theyworshipthenaturalworldastheirgod,sothey
submitthemselvestonature.3.Timeorientation(1)Value-past
orientation(2)Value-present
orientation(3)Value-future
orientationScarletsays“Afterall,tomorrowisanotherday!”
1.天人合一。2.謀事在人,成事在天。3.人定勝天。4.以史為鑒,可以知興替。5.時(shí)間就是金錢。6.活在當(dāng)下。
1.Harmony-with-natureview2.Subjugation-to-natureview3.Mastery-over-natureview4.Pastorientation5.Futureorientation6.Presentorientation4.Activityorientation(1)Doingorientation
(2)Beingorientation
(3)Being-in-becomingorientation5.Relationshiporientation(1)Individualorientation(2)Grouporientation(3)HierarchyorientationDuringthe1980s,theinfluentialDutchintercultural
communicaitonexpertGeertHofstedewasemployedbyIBMtodoa
research.Overahundredthousandworkersinfortyregionsand
countriesparticipated.IndividualismandcollectivismUncertaintyavoidancePowerdistanceMasculinityandfemininity1.IndividualismandcollectivismIndividualismistranslatedinto個(gè)體主義,incontrastwithcollectivism(集體主義).InChina,individualismissometimesmistakenforselfishness,butactuallyitisaneutralwordinmeaning.1.IndividualismandcollectivismPeople’spersonalgoalstakepriorityoverthoseoftheirgroups(like
the
familyortheir
company).
Theloyaltyofindividualists
toagivengroupisveryweak.Peoplefeeltheybelongto
many
groupsandareaptto
change
theirmembershipifanewgroupsuitsthem,forexample,leavingone
employerforanother.(1)Individualism(2)CollectivismCollectivismischaracterizedbyasocialframeworkthatgivesagrouppriorityovereachindividualinit.Peoplecounton
theirgroups
(e.g.family,relativesandorganizations)tolookafterthem,andinexchangeforthattheytendtobelievetheyoweloyaltytothe
groups.1、3、5、7、102、4、6、8、92.UncertaintyavoidanceUncertaintyavoidancedealswiththedegreetowhichmembers
ofaculturetrytoavoiduncertainty.2.UncertaintyavoidanceMembersofhighuncertaintyavoidancecultureshavealowertoleranceforuncertaintyandambiguity,whichexpressesitselfin
higherlevelsofanxiety,greaterneedforformalrulesandabsolute
truth,andlesstoleranceforpeopleorgroupswithdifferentideasor
behavior.Membersoflowuncertaintyavoidancecultureshavelowerstresslevels,
acceptdifferentideas,
andtakingmore
risks
than
membersofhighuncertaintyavoidancecultures.2.Uncertaintyavoidance2.Uncertaintyavoidancehighuncertainty—
“whatisdifferentisdangerous.”
lowuncertainty—
“whatisdifferent,iscurious.”—fromHofstede
3.PowerdistancePowerdistanceis“theextenttowhichthelesspowerful
membersofinstitutionsandorganizationsexpectandacceptthatpoweris
distributedunequally.”3.Powerdistance3.PowerdistanceIndividualsfromlargepowerdistancecultures
acceptpoweraspartofsociety.Asaresult,superiorsconsidertheir
subordinatestobedifferentfromthemselvesandviceversa.Membersofsmallpowerdistanceculturesbelievepowershouldbe
usedonlywhenitislegitimate.3.PowerdistancePowerdistanceisusefulinunderstanding
strangers’behaviorin
rolerelationships,particularlythoseinvolvingdifferentdegreesof
powerorauthority.
Peoplefromlargepowerdistancecultures,
for
example,donotquestiontheirsuperiors’
orders.Theyexpecttobetoldwhattodo.
Peopleinsmallpowerdistancecultures,incontrast,donotnecessarilytakesuperiors’ordersatfacevalue;theywantto
knowwhytheyshouldfollowthem.
4.MasculinityandfemininityThemajordifference
betweenmasculineculturesandfeminine
culturesishowgenderrolesaredistributedincultures.4.Masculinityandfemininity
Femininecultures
Socialgenderrolesoverlap.Nooneshouldfightandnooneshouldbetooambitious.Everyoneshouldbeconcernedwithmaintaininggoodrelationships
withothers.Bothmenandwomenaresupposedtobemodest,tender,andconcernedwiththequalityoflife.Masculinecultures
Bothmenand
womenarerelativelytough.Socialgenderrolesareclearlydistinct.Menaresupposedtobeassertive,tough,focusingonmaterialsuccess.Womenaresupposedtobe
moremodest,tender,andconcernedwiththequalityoflife.feminine
culturesworkinordertoliverelationshipenhancementmasculineculturesliveinordertoworkegoenhancementHofstedereports:masculineclearlydistinctthequalityoflifematerialsuccessoverlapgoodrelationshipsAssessment1.Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrue(T)orfalse(F).1.()High-contextCultureattachesgreatimportancetoverbalinformation.2.(
)ActionsaremuchmoreimportantinValue-doingCulture.3.()Humannatureisdefinitelygood.4.()Collectivismischaracterizedbyarigidsocialframeworkthat
distinguishesbetween
in-groupsandout-groups.5.()Peopleinlowpowerdistanceculturesmaynotacceptsuperiors’ordersandthey
oftenaskwhy.FTFTTAssessment2.Readeachofthefollowingstatementsandchoosethebestanswer.1.Whichculturebelongstolow-contextculture?
A.ChinaB.KoreaC.GermanyD.JapanCAssessment2.Whichculturetendstobelievethathumanshouldmasternature?A.ChineseB.AfricanC.NativeIndianD.AmericanDAssessment3.“Whatisdifferentisdangerous”istheviewofpeoplefrom_____culture.A.High-contextB.Low-contextC.HighuncertaintyavoidanceD.LowuncertaintyavoidanceC
CaseAnalysisFollowingtheirindividualisticorientations,Mr.PattersonandMr.Wymanwereperfectlycomfortablewiththeideaofcreatingteamleaderswithinth
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