Discourse語篇-社會(huì)語言學(xué)

DiscourseByLiuxuanContentBackground1Releventconcepts2DiscourseAnalysis32.1Definitions2.2Types2.3Functions1.Background Beforethe1920s,thereweremanystudiesonlanguageitselffromsyntaxview.Thestudiesaremainlyonthegrammaticalstructureofseperatedsentences.Theystudiedneithertherelationshipbetweensentences,northefunctionsofsentencesinalargerlinguisticunit. However,justlikeonewordmayhavedifferentmeaningsindifferentsentences,onesentencealsohasdifferentmeaningsandfunctionsindifferentlinguisticcontext.Howsentencesareusedincontext?Howsentencesarelinkedtogether?IssuesLinguistscasttheireyesonahigherlevelthansentenceslevel,whichiscalleddiscourse.Theystudyontheuseofsentencesindiscourse.2.Releventconcepts 2.1DefinitionsDiscourseis"languageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause".

(Stubbs1983)Discourseisacontinuousstretchoflanguagelargerthanasentence.(Crystal1986)Thestudyofdiscourseisthestudyofanyaspectoflanguageuse.(Fasold1990)黃國文在《語篇分析概要》(1988)一書中對(duì)語篇做了以下定義:“語篇通常指一系列連續(xù)的話段或句子構(gòu)成的語言整體?！梢允侵v話,也可以是文章;短者一、二句可成篇,長(zhǎng)者可洋洋萬言以上...”(黃國文1988)Discourseisaunitoflanguageabovethesentence.(E.g.paragraph,article)formal/structuralDiscourseislanguageinuse.(E.g.conversation,speech,word,phrase)functionaldiscoursesentencewordwordwordsentencesentencewordwordword2.2TypesofDiscourseAshiftofinterestinthisfieldmightbenoticed,presentlyresultinginfocusonsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenwrittenandspoken

discourse.(Renkema2004:64)Hello,Chicago!Howdoyoulikeyournewoffice?Well,Iloveit.Theroomisspecialandcleanwithbigwindowsandalotofsunshine.本臺(tái)最新消息：中國衛(wèi)生部二十九日通報(bào)，廣東省廣州市報(bào)告的一例輸入性甲型H1N1流感疑似病例當(dāng)日被診斷為確診病例

AccordingtoSteger,spokendiscourseissubdividedintosixtypes:

Thecriteriaofthisdivisionincludesuchfactorsaspresenceorabsenceofinteraction,numbersofspeakersandtheirrelationtoeachother,flexibilityoftopicalongwithselectionandattitudeofspeakerstowardsthesubjectmatter.presentation

messagereportpublicdebateconversationinterview

AccordingtoWerlich(1982),writtendiscourseissubdividedintofivetypes: description,narration,exposition,argumentation,instruction.Discription:thepatternofdevelopmentthatpresentsawordpictureofathing,aperson,asituation,oraseriesofevents.Narration:Narrationencompassesasetoftechniquesthroughwhichthecreatorofthestorypresentstheirstory.Expositionisatypeofwritingwherethepurposeistoexplain,inform,orevendescribe.Argumentationistheprocessofformingreasons,justifyingbeliefs,anddrawingconclusionswiththeaimofinfluencingthethoughtsand/oractionsofothers.Instruction(說明書)：是以應(yīng)用文體的方式對(duì)某事或物來進(jìn)行相對(duì)的詳細(xì)描述，方便人們認(rèn)識(shí)和了解某事或物。2.3FunctionsTherearetwomainfunctionsofanyformofdiscourse.

(Brown,G.&Yule,G.1993)Thatfunctionwhichlanguageservesintheexpressionof‘content’wewilldescribeastransactional.TransactionalThatfunctioninvolvedinexpressingsocialrelationsandpersonalattitudeswewilldescribeasinteractional.InteractionalFunctionsofDiscourse2.3.1TransactionalFunctionTheaimof

transactionallanguage

istoconvey"factualorpropositionalinformation".Languageusedinsuchasituationismainly

‘messageoriented’.Itisimportantthattherecipientgetstheinformativedetailcorrect.2.3.2InteractionalFunctionTheaimof

interactionallanguage

istomaintainasocialrelationship.

Conversationalanalystshave

beenparticularlyconcernedwiththeuseoflanguagetonegotiaterole-relationships,

peer-solidarity,

theexchangeofturnsinaconversation,thesavingoffaceofbothspeakerandhearer.E.g.Excuseme,Sir.Couldyoupleasetellmethewaytothenearestbusstation?Ofcourse.Justgodownthisstreet,turnleftatthefirsttrafficlightand...3.DiscourseAnalysis3.1

Development3.2Definition3.3ScopeofResearch3.4Significance3.5PreviousStudies3.1Development Thearrangementofwordsinphrasesandsentencesis

decidednotonly

bysyntax,butalsoby

speakers’

knowledge

of

the

world

and

of

theirsociety.

Toexplainthearrangement,wemust

connect

languagewiththatknowledgeand

shelve

the

project

ofdescribing

language

byitself.Andwemustquit

working

with

invented

data

andstartworkingwithauthentic

data.

Theseprospectsarepreciselywhatdiscourseanalysisintendstoachieve.ThetermDAwasfirstusedin1952byHarrisinhispaper.Hepointsout"languagedoesnotoccurinstraywordsorsentences,butinconnecteddiscourse"(Harris1952).

independentfield3.1DevelopmentFourStages TheFirstStage:(1952-the1960s)Malinowski(1933)arguesthatthemeaningofasentenceisdecidedwhenandonlyinthecontext.Harris(1952)createdthetermDA,whichisregardedasthebeginningofdiscoursestudies.Firth(1957)claimslanguage"isabehaviorthatbehavesandmeanwhileurgesotherpersontobehave",solinguistsshouldpayattentionto"thecontext".3.1Development TheSecondStage:(the1970s)Pike(1967)developsthediscourseanalysisbyitsresearchonlexemeoflanguageandhumangestures.SinclairandCoulthard(1975)saidthatanutteranceismadeupofmove,whichiscomposedofacts.Sacks,SchegloffandJefferson(1974)startedconversationalanalysisbythetermturn. TheThirdStage:(the1980s)HallidayandHasan(1976)publishedCohesioninEnglishinwhichtextandtextstructureareintroducedandin1985,AnintroductiontoFunctionalGrammar,whichisconsideredtextgrammarbylinguists.Halliday(1976)createsSystemicFunctionalGrammartostudythesentenceconstructionandtherelationsbetweensentencesanddiscourse.

TheFourthStage:(the1980s-the1990s)Widdowson(1983)andHalliday(1985)viewsDAisthestudyoftextcohesionanddiscoursecoherence.BrownandYule(1983)havepointedoutthat"theanalysisofdiscourseisnecessary,theanalysisoflanguageinuse".McCarthy(1994)claimsthat"discourseanalysisisfundamentallyconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontext.Summary Earlierstudiesofdiscourseoftenfocusedontheabstractstructuresof(written)texts,whilemanycontemporaryapproaches,especiallythoseinfluencedbythesocialsciences,favoramoredynamicstudyof(spoken,oral)talk-in-interaction. DAhasgrownintoawide-rangingdisciplinethatdescribeslanguageabovesentenceandaninterestinthecontexts,whichaffectlanguageinuse.Languagestudydevelops:

FromToabstractlanguagesystemactualproductofthatsystemsentenceleveldiscourselevelinsideofthelanguagetheoutsideworld5.2DefinitionDiscourseanalysis

Harris(1952)claimedexplicitlythat“discourseisthenextlevelin

a

hierarchy

ofmorphemes,clausesandsentences”.

Harrisviewsdiscourseanalysisprocedurallyasaformal

methodology,whichcouldbreakatextdownintorelationships(such

asequivalence,substitution)amongitslower-levelconstituents.Limitations:

(Widdowson,H.G.2004)Identifyingtheunderlyingstructuralpatternsthatmakeconnectionsacrosssentencestellsusnothingaboutwhattheymightmean.Helooksbeyondtheboundsofthesentence,itistrue,buthisvisionisessentiallythatofthesentencegrammarian.5.2DefinitionDiscourseanalysisDiscourseanalysisisthestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargemeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphsandconversation.(Richardsetal.1985)"Discourseanalysisisnota'level'ofanalysis,say,phonologyorlexico-grammar,butanexplorationofhow"texts"atalllevelsworkwithinsocio-culturalpractices."(Candlin1995)Theterm"discourseanalysis"referstoaformoflanguage,publicspeechesormoregenerallytospokenlanguageorwaysofspeaking.(VanDijk1997)Discourseanalysisstudieslanguagebyanalyzingdiscourse-thatis,byexaminingaspectsofthestructureandfunctionoflanguageinuse.(Johnstone2002)5.2Definition DAinvolveslookingatbothlanguageformandlanguagefunctionandincludesthestudyofbothspokeninteractionandwrittentexts. DAreferstotherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthesocialandculturalcontextsinwhichitisused. Itisnotmerelyconcernedwithlanguageitself,instead,italsostudiedonthecontextofcommunication,suchaswhoisinvolved,whatistheirrelationship,whatisthesituation,throughwhatmedium,whatisthefunctionandsoon.(CaoChunchun2003)Summary Discourseanalysisconcerns:theanalysisoflanguageinusetherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontextsinwhichitisusedthedescriptionandanalysisofbothspokenandwritteninteractions5.3ScopeofResearchThestudyofdiscourseThestudyoftextsisnotonlyonwrittentexts,butalsoonsoundrecordingortranscriptionsofspokenlanguageaswell.Thestudyofinteractiveeventsconcernstheproblemsandsuccessesthatpeoplehavewhenuselanguageintheirinteractions.Textinteractiveevents5.3.1Textlinguistics Thestudyoftexts,oftencalled,textlinguistics,isaprominentareaoflinguisticsinEurope. Animportantfeatureofthestudyoftexts,writtenororal,arethenotionsofcohesionandcoherence.Thosefeaturescontributetothesenseofunityinatext.Cohesion Cohesionisasemanticconcept,whichreferstorelationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext.(Halliday&Hasan1976) Itinvolvesinthegrammaticalorlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofadiscourse.Thismaybetherelationshipbetweendifferentsentencesorbetweendifferentpartsofasentence.E.g.(1)A:"IsJanehere?"B:"No,sheisn't."(2)Youcanleadahorsetowater,butyoucan'tmakehimdrink.CohesivedevicesAccordingtoHallidayandHasan,ReferenceSubstitutionEllipsisConjunctionLexicalCohesion1.Reference Itreferstotherelationbetweenanelementofthediscourseandanotherelement.E.g.ImetXiaoLilastweek.Heworksforajointventure.Wearegoingtotheoperatonight.Thiswillbeourfirstoutingformonths.2.Substitution Substitutionisthereplacementoftheword,wordgrouporsentencesegment.Therearethreetypes:clausalsubsitution,verbalsubsitutionandnominalsubstitution.E.g.(1)Haveyouanyknives?Ineedasharpone.(2)BobsaysheisgoingtojointheLabourParty.Itwillbeinterestingtoseewhetherhedoes.(3)A:"Bruceisagoodactor."B:"Idon'tthinkso."3.Ellipsis "Anellipticalisonewhich,asitwere,leavesspecificstructuralslotstobefilledfromeverywhere." Torealizeellipsis,itomitstheelementsinthesentence.HallidayandHasantermit"substitutionbyzero".Ithasthreesubcategories:nominalellipsis,verbalellipsisandclausalellipsis.(1)A:Herearesomepicturebooks.Howmanywouldyouliketohave?B:I'dliketohavetwo?.(2)IwantsomemapsofChina.Haveyougotany??4.Conjunction Conjunctionisbasedontheassumptionthatthereareinthelinguisticsystemformsofsystematicrelationshipsbetweensentences. Conjunctionistherelationshipindicatinghowthesubsequentsentenceorclauseshouldbelinkedtotheprecedingorthefollowingpartofthesentence.E.g.Itisrainingnow,sowehavetostayathome.5.LexicalCohesion Lexicalcohesionisthecontinuitythatisconstructedinatextbychoosingwords(Halliday1992).E.g.(1)A:"Whichdressareyougoingtowear?"B:"Iwillwearmygreenfrock."(2)Maryistall,buthersisterisshort.Coherence Cohesionmakesadiscourselinkedinform,whilecoherencemakesadiscoursecoherentincontent. Coherenceinlinguisticsiswhatmakesatextsemanticallymeanful. Itreferstotherelationshipwhichlinksthemeaningofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesinatext.Whereisthecake?Well,thedoglookshappy. E.g.

"DoyouknowJohn?Shecametoseemelastnight." Thereisnocohesionandcoherencebetweenthesetwosentences,soitisnotadiscourse.However,ifweputthesentencesintoalargerscope,theymaybecoherent. "John'ssisterisverylovely.DoyouknowJohn?Shecametoseemelastnight.Andwehadagoodtime." Thompson(1996)viewsthatcohesionisadiscoursedevice,whichisusedbythespeakertorepresenttheexperienceofdiscoursecoherenceanditisgrammarmeansoftheinterpersonalcoherence;coherenceispsychologicalphenomenon,whichexistsinthespeakers'mind,andcluescannotbefoundatdiscourselevel.Itcloselytiestosurfaceaspectsoflanguage,whichisachievedbygrammaticalandlexicaldevice.Itreferstothelogicalstructureofinternalaspectsoflanguage,whichisalinerarrangementoftheinformation.CohesionCoherence5.3.2ConversationAnalysis Thestudyofinteractiveeventsiscalledconversationanalysis. CAreferstotheanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedindailylife. ThepurposeofCAistostudythesequentialstructureofnaturalconversation,todiscoverhowthesturctureandresourcesofnaturalconverstionreflectspeakers'socialknowledgeandsocialidentity.Turn-takingTurn: Turnreferstothebasicunitoftheconversation.(HarveySacks1974)Turn-taking(話輪轉(zhuǎn)換): Speakersdonotspeakallatthesametime,theywaitfortheir'turn'.Yieldingtherighttospeak,orthe'floor',tothenextspeakerconstitutesaturn.Anyonecanattempttogettherighttospeakinanysituation. 會(huì)話的特點(diǎn)是話輪替換，發(fā)話者與受話者不斷交換所扮演的角色。日常會(huì)話的根本單位是話輪，構(gòu)成話輪的語言單位可以是單詞、短語、分句、句子、句組或更大的單位。 會(huì)話中有一條潛在的，會(huì)話者自然地、無意識(shí)地遵守著的規(guī)那么：每次至少有一方，但又不多于一方在說話。如果有多人或無人發(fā)話，便會(huì)有人來“挽救”局面。(黃國文1988)薩克斯的研究說明，正在講話的人對(duì)會(huì)話的開展有三種控制程度：1〕通過點(diǎn)名來選定下一位說話人。 E.g.Whatdoyouthink,John?2〕通過提問題，提請(qǐng)求等方式來選定下一個(gè)講話人，但不是通過點(diǎn)名，而是由其他人自己作出選擇。 E.g.Whowouldliketosaysomethingaboutit?3〕正在講話的人完全留待其他參加會(huì)話的人自行選擇，繼續(xù)進(jìn)行對(duì)話。 E.g.A:...That'swhatIthinkofit.B:Well,I'dliketosayafewwordsaboutit... 在會(huì)話中，話輪替換的時(shí)機(jī)通常發(fā)生在受話者認(rèn)為發(fā)話者的話已經(jīng)到了“可能的結(jié)尾”之處，這就要求參加會(huì)話的人都必須具備理解和分析別人的講話內(nèi)容的能力，具備識(shí)別“可能的結(jié)尾”的能力。杰斐遜〔1973〕的研究說明，會(huì)話者無疑具備下面這三種能力：1〕他們能夠不留間隙地給前一位說話者已經(jīng)完整的話段加上一個(gè)結(jié)尾。E.g.Ben:An'there--therewasatleasttenmilesoftraffic,bumpertobumper.Ethel:--becauseofthat.2〕他們能夠在適宜的時(shí)機(jī)給一個(gè)還沒有完整的句子加上自己建議的結(jié)尾。E.g.Louise:No,ahsosheissomeonewho-isacarboncopyoftheirfriend.Roger:drinksPepsi.3〕他們能夠預(yù)測(cè)句子的結(jié)尾局部，并可能和正在講話的人同時(shí)說出同樣的話。E.g. Dan:Theguywhodoesn'truntheracedoesn'twinit,buthedoesn'tloseit.Roger:loseit. 如果正在講話的人想越過“可能的結(jié)尾”并繼續(xù)說下去，那他可以采取一些方法來實(shí)現(xiàn)這一愿望。最簡(jiǎn)單的方法是使用薩克斯所說的“話段未結(jié)束成分”，即一般所說的連接性狀語，如：but,and,however,besides等。另一種方法是使用像if,since,when這種“未結(jié)束標(biāo)記”，因?yàn)檫@些詞可用來說明在第一個(gè)肯恩的結(jié)尾之前至少有一到兩個(gè)分句。這樣就可減少被人打斷話的可能性。5.4SignificanceofDAIthasdemonstratedthatbothspokenandwrittendiscoursehaveconsistentanddescribablestructures,withdifferentcomplexitiesreflectingthedifferentfunctionsofspeechandwritinginourculture.Itprovidesvaluableinsightsintothewaywepatternandorganizeourspeech.Discourseanalysiswillenableustorevealthehiddenmotivationsbehindadisourse(benefitreadingcomprehension).Itcanhelpusimproveourappreciationandevaluationofliteraryworks,andbetterourlinguisticexpressionbothorallyandwritten,andenlargeourvisioninthefieldoflinguisticstudies.5.5.PreviousStudiesonDAPreviousstudiesinWesterncountries01PreviousstudiesinChina025.5.1PreviousStudiesinWesternCountriesIn1952,HarrispublishedapaperentitledDiscourseAnalysis,whichputstheterm"discourseanalysis"intooperation.Hetriestoexplainthelinkingbetweensentencesintextsthroughgrammaticaldevices,aimingatresearchinglanguageelementsinadiscourse.Hymes(1964)providesasociologicalperspective,whichpioneersthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsocialcontext.Halliday'sfunctionalapproach(1976)isthemostinfluentialamongthem.Hisframworkemphasizesthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthematicaswellasinformationstructureofspeechandwriting.Widdowson(1978)furtherstatesthatdiscourseanalysisisastudyofhowsentencesareusedincommunicationtocompletethesocialbehavior,emphasizingthecommunicativefunctionoflanguage.AccordingtoBrownandYule(1983),theanalysisofdiscourseintheanalysisoflanguageusedintherealsituation.McCarthy(2002)statesthatdiscourseanalysisisfundamentallyconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontexts.Martin'sdiscoursesemanti