當代市場調研 （原第12版）課件英文第3章　建立營銷洞察力的測量

MarketingResearchTwelfthEditionCarlD.McDanielandRogerGatesChapter3MeasurementtoBuildMarketingInsightsLearningObjectivesAnalyzetheconceptofmeasurement.Definewhatisaconcept.Learnthenatureofaconstruct.Writeaconceptconstitutively.Defineaconceptoperationally.Understandhowtocreateameasurementscale.Evaluatethereliabilityandvalidityofameasurement.Understandtheconceptofscaling.Comparethevarioustypesofattitudescales.Examinesomebasicconsiderationsinselectingatypeofscale.Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.3-2MeasurementProcessMeasurementistheprocessofassigningnumbersorlabelstopersons,objects,oreventsinaccordancewithspecificrulesforrepresentingquantitiesorqualitiesofattributesConvertsattributestonumbersAruleisaguide,amethod,oracommandthattellsaresearcherwhattodoInotherwords,howtoconvertattributestonumbersRuleneedstobeclearandspecificManyattributesofinterestarehardtomeasureThatmakesthemhardtoassignnumbersto3-3Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.MeasurementProcessSteps3-4Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.StepOne:IdentifytheConceptofInterest3-5Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ThemeasurementprocessbeginswithidentificationoftheconceptofinterestAconceptisanabstractideageneralizedfromparticularfactsStepTwo:DevelopaConstructConstructsarespecifictypesofconceptsthatexistathigherlevelsofabstractionthandoeverydayconceptsThevalueofspecificconstructsdependsonhowusefultheyareinexplaining,predicting,andcontrollingphenomenaGenerally,constructsarenotdirectlyobservableConstructsaidresearchersbysimplifyingandintegratingthecomplexphenomenafoundinthemarketingenvironment3-6Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.StepThree:DefinetheConceptConstitutivelyAconstitutivedefinitionisastatementofthemeaningofthecentralideaorconceptunderstudy,establishingitsboundariesItshouldfullydistinguishtheconceptunderinvestigationfromallotherconceptsAvagueconstitutivedefinitioncancauseanincorrectresearchquestiontobeaddressed3-7Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.StepFour:DefinetheConceptOperationallyAnoperationaldefinitionspecifieswhichobservablecharacteristicswillbemeasuredandtheprocessforassigningavaluetotheconceptManyvariablesarestatedinmoreabstracttermsandmeasuredindirectly,basedontheoreticalassumptionsabouttheirnatureConstructssuchas“attitude”and“high-involvementpurchasing”areabstractionsthatcannotbeobservedOperationaldefinitionstransformsuchconstructsintoobservableeventsConstructequivalencedealswithhowpeoplesee,understand,anddevelopmeasurementsofaparticularphenomenon3-8Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.StepFive:DevelopaMeasurementScaleAscaleisasetofsymbolsornumberssoconstructedthatthesymbolsornumberscanbeassignedbyaruletotheindividuals(ortheirbehaviorsorattitudes)towhomthescaleisappliedCreatingameasurementscalebeginswithdeterminingthelevelofmeasurementthatisdesirableorpossibleTherearefourbasiclevelsofmeasurement:nominal,ordinal,interval,andratioHigherlevelsaremore“powerful”3-9Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.TheFourBasicLevelsofMeasurement3-10Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.TheFourBasicLevelsofMeasurementContinued3-11Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.StepSix:EvaluatetheReliabilityandValidity

oftheMeasurement

3-12Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ReasonsTwoScoresonaMeasurementScalecanDifferAtruedifferenceinthecharacteristicbeingmeasuredDifferencesduetostablecharacteristicsofindividualrespondentsDifferencesduetoshort-termpersonalfactorsDifferencescausedbysituationalfactorsDifferencesresultingfromvariationsinadministeringthesurveyDifferencesduetothesamplingofitemsincludedinthequestionnaireDifferencesduetoalackofclarityinthemeasurementinstrumentDifferencesduetomechanicalorinstrumentfactors3-13Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ReliabilityAmeasurementscalethatprovidesconsistentresultsovertimeisreliableReliabilityisthedegreetowhichmeasuresarefreefromrandomerrorand,therefore,provideconsistentdataAreliablemeasurementdoesnotchangewhentheconceptbeingmeasuredremainsconstantinvalueTherearethreewaystoassessreliability:test–retest,theuseofequivalentforms,andinternalconsistency3-14Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Test–RetestReliabilityTest–retestreliabilityisobtainedbyrepeatingthemeasurementwiththesameinstrument,approximatingtheoriginalconditionsascloselyaspossibleIfrandomvariationsarepresent,theywillberevealedbydifferencesinthescoresbetweenthetwotestsStabilitymeansthatveryfewdifferencesinscoresarefoundbetweenthefirstandsecondadministrationsofthetestInotherwords,thereishighcorrelationbetweenthedifferentsetsofscores3-15Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ProblemswithTest–RetestReliabilityItmaybeverydifficulttolocateandgainthecooperationofrespondentsforasecondtestingThefirstmeasurementmayalteraperson’sresponseonthesecondmeasurementEnvironmentalorpersonalfactorsmaychange,causingthesecondmeasurementtochange3-16Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.EquivalentFormReliabilityTwodifferentformscreatedtomeasurethesamethingAdministeredatdifferenttimesEquivalentformreliabilityistheabilityoftwoverysimilarformsofaninstrumenttoproducecloselycorrelatedresultsTwoproblemsItisverydifficult,andperhapsimpossible,tocreatetwototallyequivalentformsEvenifequivalencecanbeachieved,itmaynotbeworththetime,trouble,andexpenseinvolvedTest–retestusesthesameinstrument,whereastheequivalentformsapproachusesadifferent,buthighlysimilar,measuringinstrument3-17Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.InternalConsistencyReliabilityInternalconsistencyreliabilityassessestheabilitytoproducesimilarresultswhendifferentsamplesareusedtomeasureaphenomenonduringthesametimeperiodEquivalenceisconcernedwithhowmucherrormaybeintroducedbyusingdifferentsamplesofitemstomeasureaphenomenonAsetofitemsusedtomeasureaphenomenonSetisdividedintotwohalvesThetotalscoresofthetwohavesarethencorrelatedUseofthesplit-halftechniquetypicallycallsforscaleitemstoberandomlyassignedtoonehalfortheother3-18Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ProblemwithInternalConsistencyReliabilityTheproblemwiththismethodisthattheestimateofthecoefficientofreliabilityistotallydependentonhowtheitemsweresplitDifferentsplitsresultindifferentcorrelationsToovercomethisproblem,manyresearchersusetheCronbachalphatechniqueComputesameanreliabilitycoefficientforallpossiblesplitsAlackofcorrelationofanitemwithotheritemsinthescaleisevidencethattheitemdoesnotbelonginthescaleandshouldbeomittedRequiresequalintervalsAnothertestcalledKR-20canbeusedwithunequalintervals3-19Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ValidityValidityaddressestheissueofwhetherwhattheresearcherwastryingtomeasurewasactuallymeasuredThevalidityofameasurereferstotheextenttowhichthemeasurementinstrumentandprocedurearefreefrombothsystematicandrandomerrorAmeasuringdeviceisvalidonlyifdifferencesinscoresreflecttruedifferencesonthecharacteristicbeingmeasured3-20Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.AssessingtheValidityofaMeasurementInstrumentFacevalidity:Thedegreetowhichameasurementinstrumentseemstomeasurewhatitissupposedto,asjudgedbyresearchersWeakestformofvalidityAlternatively,itcanrefertothesubjectiveagreementofresearchers,experts,orpeoplefamiliarwiththemarket,product,orindustrythatascalelogicallyappearstobeaccuratelyreflectingwhatitissupposedtomeasureContentvalidity:ThedegreetowhichmeasurementitemsrepresenttheuniverseoftheconceptunderstudyInotherwords,doesthescaleprovideadequatecoverageofthetopicunderstudyThedeterminationofcontentvalidityisnotalwaysasimplematter3-21Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.AssessingtheValidityofaMeasurementInstrumentContinuedCriterion-relatedvalidity:ThedegreetowhichameasurementinstrumentcanpredictavariablethatisdesignatedacriterionPredictivevalidity:TheextenttowhichafuturelevelofacriterionvariablecanbepredictedbyacurrentmeasurementonascaleConcurrentvalidity:TheextenttowhichacriterionvariablemeasuredatthesamepointintimeasthevariableofinterestcanbepredictedbythemeasurementinstrumentCriterion-relatedvalidityisconcernedwithdetectingthepresenceorabsenceofoneormorecriteriaconsideredtorepresentconstructsofinterest3-22Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.AssessingtheValidityofaMeasurementInstrumentContinuedConstructvalidity:ThedegreetowhichameasurementinstrumentconfirmsahypothesiscreatedfromatheorybasedontheconceptsunderstudyConvergentvalidity:Thedegreeofassociationamongdifferentmeasurementinstrumentsthatpurporttomeasurethesameconcept.Discriminantvalidity:AmeasureofthelackofassociationamongconstructsthataresupposedtobedifferentAmeasurehasconstructvalidityifitbehavesaccordingtothetheorybehindthepredictionYoumightthinkofconstructvalidityasalabelingissueIfyourresearchlacksconstructvalidity,littleelsematters3-23Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.IllustrationsofPossibleReliabilityandValiditySituationsinMeasurement3-24Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ScalingScaling:Proceduresforassigningnumbers(orothersymbols)topropertiesofanobjectinordertoimpartsomenumericalcharacteristicstothepropertiesinquestionScalesareeitherunidimensionalormultidimensionalUnidimensionalscalesaredesignedtomeasureonlyoneattributeofaconcept,respondent,orobjectMultidimensionalscalesarebasedonthepremisethataconcept,respondent,orobjectmightbebetterdescribedusingseveraldimensions3-25Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.AttitudeMeasurementScalesMeasurementofattitudesreliesonlessprecisescalesthanthosefoundinthephysicalsciencesandhenceismuchmoredifficultBecauseanattitudeisaconstructthatexistsinthemindoftheconsumer,itisnotdirectlyobservableUsuallymeasuredatthenominalorordinallevel3-26Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.GraphicRatingScales3-27Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.GraphicRatingScalesContinuedGraphicratingscalesofferrespondentsagraphiccontinuum,typicallyanchoredbytwoextremesRespondentsareinstructedtomarktheirresponseonthecontinuumGraphicratingsscalesarealsosometimescalled“sliders”whenusedinonlineDisadvantages:OverlyextremeanchorstendtoforcerespondentstowardthemiddleofthescaleSomeresearchhassuggestedthatsuchscalesarenotasreliableasitemizedratingscales3-28Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ItemizedRatingScalesItemizedratingscalesaresimilartographicratingscales,exceptthatrespondentsmustselectfromalimitednumberoforderedcategoriesTheydonotallowforthefinedistinctionsHowever,theyareeasytoconstructandadministerUsuallyproducemorereliableratings3-29Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Rank-OrderScalesItemizedandgraphicscalesarenoncomparativescalesNoncomparativescales:Measurementscalesinwhichjudgmentismadewithoutreferencetoanotherobject,concept,orperson.Rank-orderscalesarecomparativescalesbecausetherespondentisaskedtocomparetwoormoreitemsandrankeachitemComparativescales:Measurementscalesinwhichoneobject,concept,orpersoniscomparedwithanotheronascaleDisadvantages:Ifallofthealternativesarenotincluded,theresultscouldbemisleadingTheconceptbeingrankedmaybecompletelyoutsideaperson’schoicesetOnlyyieldsordinaldataTheresearcherdoesnotknowwhytherespondentrankedtheitemstheydid3-30Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.PairedComparisonsPairedcomparisonscalesaskarespondenttopickoneofthetwoobjectsfromaset,basedonsomestatedcriteriaTherespondent,therefore,makesaseriesofpairedjudgmentsbetweenobjectsAdvantages:ItiseasierforpeopletoselectoneitemfromtwothantorankalargesetofdataTheproblemoforderbiasisovercomeDisadvantageisthenumberofpairedcomparisonsincreasesrapidlyasmoreitemsareadded3-31Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.PairedComparisonScaleforSunCareProducts3-32Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ConstantSumScalesConstantsumscalesrequiretherespondenttodivideagivennumberofpointsamongtwoormoreattributesbasedontheirimportanceRespondentsmustvalueeachitemrelativetoallotheritemsThenumberofpointsallocatedtoeachalternativeindicatestherankingassignedtoitbytherespondentAmajordisadvantageofthisscaleisthattherespondentmayhavedifficultyallocatingthepointsiftherearealotofcharacteristicsoritems3-33Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.SemanticDifferentialScalesSemanticdifferentialscale:Measurementscalesthatexaminethestrengthsandweaknessesofaconceptbyhavingtherespondentrankitbetweendichotomouspairsofwordsorphrasesthatcouldbeusedtodescribeit;themeansoftheresponsesarethenplottedasaprofileorimageTheconstructionofasemanticdifferentialscalebeginswithdeterminationofaconcepttoberatedRespondentsthenratetheconceptonascale(usually1to7)Themeanoftheresponsesforeachpairofadjectivesiscomputed,andthemeansareplottedasaprofileorimage3-34Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.SemanticDifferentialProfileofanArizonaSavingsandLoanAssociation3-35Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.SemanticDifferentialScalesAdvantagesandDisadvantagesAdvantages:ItisaquickandefficientmeansofexaminingthestrengthsandweaknessesIthasbeenshowntobesufficientlyreliableandvalidfordecisionmakingandpredictioninmarketingandthebehavioralsciencesIthasprovedtobestatisticallyrobustDisadvantages:ItsuffersfromalackofstandardizationThenumberofdivisionsonthescalealsopresentsaproblemThehaloeffectTheratingofaspecificimagecomponentmaybedominatedbytheinterviewee’soverallimpressionoftheconceptbeingrated3-36Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.StapelScalesTheStapelscaleisamodificationofthesemanticdifferentialStapelscale:Measurementscalesthatrequiretherespondenttorate,onascalerangingfrom+5to?5,howcloselyandinwhatdirectionadescriptoradjectivefitsagivenconceptAdvantages:ItenablestheresearchertoavoidthearduoustaskofcreatingbipolaradjectivepairsItcanpermitfinerdiscriminationinmeasuringattitudesDrawbacks:Adrawbackisthatdescriptoradjectivescanbephrasedinapositive,neutral,ornegativevein,andthechoiceofphrasinghasbeenshowntoaffectthescaleresultsandtheperson’sabilitytorespondNotcommonlyused3-37Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.StapelScaleUsedtoMeasureaRetailer’sWebSite3-38Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.LikertScalesLikertscale:MeasurementscalesinwhichtherespondentspecifiesalevelofagreementordisagreementwithstatementsexpressingeitherafavorableoranunfavorableattitudetowardtheconceptunderstudyWiththeLikertscale,therespondentisrequiredtoconsideronlyonestatementatatimeLikertcreatedthescalesothataresearchercouldlookatasummedscoreandtellwhetheraperson’sattitudetowardaconceptwaspositiveornegativeIntheworldofmarketingresearch,Likert-likescalesareverypopularTheyarequickandeasytoconstruct3-39Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.BuildingLikertScalesTheresearcheridentifiestheconceptoractivitytobescaledTheresearcherassemblesalargenumberofstatementsconcerningtheconceptEachtestitemisclassifiedbytheresearcherasgenerally“favorable”or“unfavorable”Inthepretest,therespondentindicatesagreement(ornot)witheveryitemEachresponseisgivenanumericalweightTheindividual’stotalattitudescoreisrepresentedbythealgebraicsummationofweightsassociatedwiththeitemschecked3-40Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.BuildingLikertScalesContinuedAfterseeingtheresultsofthepretest,theresearcherselectsonlythoseitemsthatappeartodiscriminatewellbetweenhighandlowtotalscorersThe20to25itemsfinallyselectedarethosethathavediscriminated“best”Steps3through5arethenrepeatedinthemainstudy3-41Copyright?2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Purchase-IntentScalesPerhapsthesinglescaleusedmostofteninmarketingresearchisthepurchase-intentscalePurchase-intentscale:Scalesusedtomeasurearespondent’sintentiontobuyornotbuyaproductDuringnew-productdevelopment,thepurchase-intentquestionisfirstaskedduringconcepttestingPurchase-intentisevaluatedateachstageofdevelopmentanddem